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THE 



ARMIES OF EUROPE: 



COMPRISING 



DESCRIPTIONS IX DETAIL 



MILITARY SYSTEMS OF ENGLAND, FRANTE, RUSSIA, 
PRUSSLA, AUSTRIA, AND SARDINIA, 

Adapting tlicir Advantages to all .Irms of tlie luited States Service: 



AM) EMBODTDJG THE 



REPORT OF OBSERVATIONS IN EUROPE DURING THE CRIMEAN WAR, 

AS -MILITARY COMMISSIONER FROM THE UNITED STATES 

GOVERNMENT, IN 18-55-56. 



BY 

GEO. B. AI<^CLELLAN, 

MAJOEGEyF.KAL U.S. ARMT. 



OEIGINAULY PUBLISHED TJITDER THE DIEECTION OF THE WAE DEPAETMENT 
BY OHDER OF CONGRESS. 



lUnstratfi) bitb SebEral punbreb (Enqrafaings. 



PHILADELPHIA : 
J. B. LIPPIXCOTT & CO. 

1862. 






*th^ 



o 



Entered accoiding to Act of Congress, in the year 1S61, by 

J. B. LIPPIXCO'LT &, CO. 

in the CleA's OfRce of the District Court of tlio United States for the Eastern District of 

Pennsvlvanla. 



PUBLISHERS' PREFACE. 



The following pages comprise tbe record of the observations 
of General McClellan, as military commissioner from the United 
States Government to Europe in 1855-56. He was the youngest 
officer of the commission, and was selected on account of the 
brilliant military qualities he had already displayed. 

This volume opens with a masterly and interesting summary 
of the war in the Crimea, in which the boldness of the comments 
is fully warranted by their intelligence and justice : following 
this is a varied and detailed description of all the components 
of the prominent European armies, gathered from the highest 
authorities, at the military schools, forts, iliuseums, camps, and 
garrisons of the countries which he visited. As he was at that 
time a captain of cavalry, this arm engages his particular atten- 
tion : he has presented the fullest account yet offered of the 
cavalry service in Europe ; and, by adaptation, a most excellent 
set of Regulations for the field service of the United States 
cavalry in time of war. These regulations are invaluable, and 
should be in the hands of every cavalry officer in the service. 

A recapitulation of the contents would be prolix and unneces- 
sary : a word may be said as to the present issue of the work. 
Written in time of profound peace, — the author being of subor- 
dinate rank, and but little known, beyond that army appreciation 
which he has always enjoyed^ — the report appeared originally as 
a Government document, in an inconvenient (quarto) form, and it 
commanded a large price. Although adding to .his reputation 
among military men, it never found its way to the public at large. 

Those into whose hands it fell, and who were sufficiently edu- 
cated in military affairs to appreciate it, at once recognized its 
excellence, the immense labor bestowed upon it, and the practical 
value of its teachings; but the facts just mentioned prevented the 
expectation that these v/ould receive the reward of general praise. 



6 rUBLISHERS' TREFACE. 

Actuated by energy, enterprise, and self-respect, McClellan was 
true to himself and his commission, and was willing to submit his 
labors to time. 

That time has now arrived. The country is convulsed by war; 
military instruction is everywhere looked for and eagerly received. 
The American public is educated up to the intelligent use of such 
books as this ; and the book itself, in excellence, variety, and 
value, stands without a rival. The citizen soldier, whose patriot- 
ism alone takes him to the field, will here find the best precepts 
in his newly-adopted profession, now emanating from the lips of 
his own distinguished commander. To the army he always speaks 
with authority. 

Originally an engineer officer, and serving with distinction in 
an engineer company during the Mexican War, McClellan has 
given us in this work the best directions as to engineer troops, 
reconnoissances and field fortifications, and entrenchments. 

As a captain of cavalry, he has made that arm his special sub- 
ject; and as a complete soldier, who knows that the strength of 
an army is its infantry, he has not neglected that corps, in ob- 
servation or record. The work is indeed a full and clear descrip- 
tion of the armies of Europe, as its new title expresses. 

But chiefly is it appropriate and timely because it lays down 
the principles which are to guide him in his important command. 
It contains his own theoretic views and rules, now to be carried 
out in practice. It is — as it were — his own military history 
written, unconsciously, in advance. 

His constituency is now immense ; and they will watch with 
intense interest, while they read his war-precepts here, to see 
how he will carry them out in the great war in which he has such 
an important command. 

It is due to the distinguished author to say that the republi- 
cation is made at the urgent request of the publishers. 

Philadklphia, Oct. 3, 1861. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

The Crimean Wak 9 

European Engineer Troops 36 

French, Austrian, Prussian, and Sardinian Infantry 57 

The Russian Army : 

Chapter I. Organization, Uniform. Recruiting, Rations, &c 85 

Chapter II. The Instruction and Tactics of Cavalry TK! 

Chapter III. Equipment, Arms, Stables, Horses, &c., of Cavalry L'OO 

Chapter lY. On the Russian Infantry 211 

Prussian Cavalry 295 

Austrian Cavalry ;)14 

French Caa'alry ^54(1 

English Cavalry 377 

Sardinian Cavalry 384 

United States Cavalry 380 

APPENDIX. 
Regulations and Instructions for the Field Service op Cavalry, in 

Time of War, for the United States Army 395 

INI.EX 491 



M<^CLELLAN'S 

ARMIES OF EUROPE 



THE CRIMEAN WAR. 

Believing that the officers of the army have a right to know the 
opinions formed by one of their number who enjoyed the opportunity of 
visiting, in an official character, the scene of the recent contest in the 
East, I somewhat reluctantly undertake the task of attempting to give a 
succinct account of those general points of the operations in the Crimea 
which are most important and interesting in their professional bearing. 

For many and obvious reasons, no attempt will be made to enter into 
details. The task would be an endless one were the means at hand; and 
nothing but an accurate survey, or very minute and frequent .esamina'- 
tions, of every part of the vast field on which these operations occurred, 
combined with the advantage of having been an eye-witness of the events 
themselves and the circumstances under which they took place, could 
justify any one in undertaking to give a detailed account of the campaign 
of the Crimea. It is known that circumstances rendered it impossible 
for the commission to reach the seat of war until a short time after the 
fall of the Malakoff. I have reason to expect that the other members of 
the commission (Col. Delafield, of the Engineers, and Maj. Mordecai, 
of the Ordnance) will enter into considerable detail with regard to the 
condition and nature of the Russian defences as they existed at the close 
of the siege, the amount, calibre, and effect of the artillery employed, &c. 

Although fully aware that it is much easier to criticize operations after 
the result is known than to direct them at the time, I shall not hesitate to 
invite attention to what appear to be evident mistakes on either side ; this, 
not for the purpose of finding fault, or instituting comparisons, but with 
the hope that it may serve to draw the attention of our officers to the 
same points, and, perhaps, assist in preventing similar errors on our part 
hereafter 

From the general interest felt in the Crimean war, it is more than 

9 



lU THE ATvMIES OF EUROPE. 

probable that every officer of our army followed step by step the movements 
of the allies from Gallipoli to Varna, from Varna to Old Fort, and thence 
to the scene of the gigantic strife in the Heracleidan Chersonese. 

It may seem absurd to compare small affiiirs with great, but it cannot 
fail to be a source of satisfaction to reflect upon the fact that in the opera- 
tions against Vera Cruz, the first thing of that nature we had ever under- 
taken, we completed a difficult line of investment on the second day after 
landing, while the experienced troops of the allies required nearly seven 
days to land and march about 15 miles to the Alma; bearing in mind that 
they landed without knapsacks, (the English, at least,) with nothing but 
a scanty field material, and that they were in constant communication with 
their fleet. It was twenty-seven days after the battle of the Alma that 
they opened fire upon Sebastopol, although the distance from the Alma to 
Balaklava did not exceed 30 miles, and their siege train was with the 
fleet and landed In the secure harbors of Kamiesch and Balaklava. In 
spite of the delays arising from mistakes in forwarding our siege train, 
which was landed on an open beach, at a time when violent northers 
frequently suspended work and cut off" all communication with the fleet, 
we opened fire upon Vera Cruz on the thirteenth day after landing. 

Before entering upon the siege of Sebastopol, it may be well to refer to 
the battles which varied the monotony of that long period, during which 
both parties evinced so much gallantry and endurance in the usual opera- 
tions of attack and defence, relieved often by the gallant sorties of the 
garrison on the one hand, and on the other by the desperate assaults of 
the besiegers. In the battle of the Alma, important chiefly because it 
established the viorale of the attacking party, the allies seem to have been, 
judging from the statements of both sides, of about double the force of 
the Russians. It does not appear that the position was really a remark- 
ably strong one, nor that it was at all improved by artificial means. The 
only field works were a few trifling barbette parapets in front of some of 
the batteries ; while the slopes leading to the position seem often to have 
been, particularly on the Russian left, too steep to permit the eff'ective 
operation of the weapons of the defenders. Of the relative gallantry of 
the troops composing the allied army this is no proper place to speak. It 
need only be said that the column conducted by General Bosquet decided 
the retreat of the Russians, since it turned their left flank. Of the pro- 
priety of this movement doubts may be entertained, considering always 
the subsequent movements of the allies. It would seem natural that two 
plans ought to have been considered by the allied generals : the first, to 
cut off" the Russian army from Sebastopol, and, following the battle by a 
rapid advance upon the city, to enter it, at all hazards, over the bodies of 
its weak garrison, effect their purposes, and either retire to the fleet or 
hold the town ; the second, to cut off the Russian army of operations from 



THE CRIMEAN WAR. H 

all external succor ou the part of troops coming from the direction of 
Simpheropol, to drive them into the city, and enter at their heels. 

To accomplish the first plan, the attack of Bosquet was proper, but 
should have been followed up by such an unremitting pursuit as that 
which succeeded the battle of Jena. To gain the second object, it would 
have been proper to attack the Russian right, and endeavor not only to 
cut them ofl" from Simpheropol, but to throw them into the sea by pushing 
forward the allied left so far and so rapidly as to cut them ofi" from Sebas- 
topol, and thus annihilate them. Neither of these plans was fully carried 
out. The Russians retired in perfect order, abandoning only one or two dis- 
mounted guns, thus justifying the supposition that their general appreciated 
much more fully than did the allies the delicate nature of his jiosition. 

It must be stated that, during the battle, the garrison of Sebastopol 
consisted merely of four battalions and the sailors of the fleet. The con- 
dition of its defences at that time will hereafter be alluded to. 

In considering the operations of the Russians at this period, it must be 
remembered that the nearest harbor to the north of Sebastopol that could 
at all answer as a depot for the operations of a siege was the poor one of 
Eupatoria, forty-eight miles distant ; and that to the south of the city 
the only harbors were Balaklava and the series between Cape Chersonese 
and the city. It was clearly the interest of the Russians to oblige the 
allies to attack on the north rather than ou the south side ; for the reasons 
that the former was already in an efficient state of defence, requiring open 
trenches to reduce it, while the latter was open ; and more especially that 
their long line of communication with Eupatoria and the rear of their 
position would have remained exposed to the constant attacks of the re- 
inforcements which might soon be expected by the Russians, while the 
city could still be supplied by the more circuitous route of the valley of 
Baidar, the allied force being too small to complete the investment. It 
was impossible for the Russians to oppose the landing ; because an army 
on land could never keep pace with the movements of a fleet. The only 
reasonable plan was to remain in position at Sebastopol, and act according 
to circumstances as soon as the allies showed their hand. But, the lauding 
being once effected, the Russian general should have annoyed and harassed 
them, by day and night, by unremitting attacks by his Cossacks and other 
light troops. 

Instead of offering battle at the Alma, two other plans were open for 
the consideration of the Russian. In any event, to destroy the harbors of 
Balaklava, Kamiesch, &c., and then, first, to leave in Sebastopol the gar- 
rison necessary to secure it against assault by a detachment of the allied 
army, and with the rest of his available troops to operate on the left flank 
of the allies, in which case his superior knowledge of the ground ought 
to have enabled him at least to delay them many days in a precarious 



12 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

position ; second, to remain in the vicinity of the city, occupy the plateau 
to the south of it, and allow the allies to jilunge as deeply as they chose 
into the cul cle sac thus opened to them. 

A couple of vessels sunk in the narrow mouth of the harbor of Balak- 
lava, or the employment of a few tons of powder in blasting the cliffs 
which enclosed its entrance, would have effectually prevented all access 
to it. A few vessels sunk in the common entrance of the harbors of 
Kamiesch and Kazatch, and the same thing at Strelitzka bay, would have 
rendered them also inaccessible. This should have been regarded as a 
necessary part of any system of defence for Sebastopol, and, if carried 
out, would have placed the allies in a most unenviable position. The 
result of their expedition would have been disastrous in the extreme; and 
they might well have esteemed themselves fortunate if permitted to re- 
trace their weary journey to the Old Fort, there to re-embark and con- 
sider more promising plans of campaign. I am not acquainted with the 
early career of the Russian commander, but cannot resist the conviction 
that the history of his operations will but present another example of the 
impropriety of intrusting military operations to any other than a profes- 
sional soldier, or at least of the danger of attempting to combine in one 
person any such dissimilar professions as those of the sailor and the soldier. 
The moral courage and energy of the admiral in the early part of the 
siege, and his sagacity in detecting the merits of Todtleben, are above 
praise, but cannot efface the impression that he failed to take a suffi- 
ciently enlarged and military view of the events he so largely controlled. 

To resume the movements of the allies. The battle of the Alma was 
fought o-n the 20th of September ; the two following days were spent on 
the field of battle ; the 23d and 24th were occupied in marching a little 
more than ten miles to the Balbek ; the 25th and half of the 26th were 
passed here, when, at noon of the latter day, the flank march to the 
south side was commenced by the curious arrangement of sending the 
English artillery in advance, without escort, through a woods. This 
very original order of march was wellnigh attended with disastrous con- 
sequences ; for, as the head of the column approached the main road at 
Mackenzie's farm, a strong Russian column passed by. Fortunately for 
the English batteries, the Russians must have neglected observing the 
roads, and, being ignorant of the true state of affairs, steadily pursued 
their march towards Baktschi Serai, thus losing an opportunity of 
striking a brilliant blow without risk to themselves. 

Finally, after darkness set in, the head of the English column reached 
the banks of the Tchernaya at the Traktir bridge, the rear closing up 
very late at night, broken down by disease, burning with thirst and 
exhausted by fatigue. Next day the march was resumed ; losing many 
men by the cholera, and much disorganized by the fiitigucs of the pre- 



THE CRIMEAN WAR. 13 

ceding day, they at length reached the welcome haven of Balaklava 
just as an English steamer glided in. Thus, on the 27th, the communi- 
cation with the fleet was regained, and the first episode of the campaign 
terminated. The French followed the movement, the armies ascended the 
plateau, Kamiesch was occupied ; and now, instead of taking advantage of 
the exposed condition of the south side, the allies commenced the labor 
of lauding and moving up their siege material, opening the trenches, &c. 

To appreciate the position of the English army on the night it reached 
the Tchernaya, it must be borne in mind that it had in its rear the pre- 
cipitous heights of Mackenzie, several hundred feet in elevation, with 
but a single road leading to the summit, and that they were thus cut ofi^ 
from the immediate assistance of the French. If the English had been 
attacked this night, the result must have been disastrous to them in the 
extreme. Had the harbor of Balaklava been destroyed, and the attack 
been made during the next day's march, it is probable that their annihila- 
tion would have been the result. 

In considering this march, it is somewhat difficult to determine which 
party committed the greatest faults, — the allies in so exposing themselves, 
or the Russian in failing to avail himself of the opportunities off"ered. 

Thus far the allied generals displayed none of the qualities of great 
commanders : their measures were half-way measures, slow and blunder- 
ing; they failed to keep constantly in view the object of the expedition, 
and to press rapidly and unceasingly towards it. 

From the moment the allies occupied Balaklava and Kamiesch, the 
conduct of the Russian general deserves high commendation, and was in 
striking contrast with that of his antagonists. 

The afi'air of Balaklava has been so often discussed, yet so imperfectly 
explained by the innumerable military and civil inquiries to which it, and 
all connected with it, have been subjected, that it would seem idle for 
one who visited the scene nearly a year after it occurred to pretend to 
comment upon it ; but it may be permitted to say, with regard to the 
ground over which the English light cavalry charged, that, if the eye 
were not raised from the soil under foot, no more favorable place could 
be selected for a charge of cavalr}' — it was on the smooth turf of the flat and 
level bottom of a wide valley; but, upon turning the glance to the ground 
to the north and east, imagining the Russians in the positions which they 
occupied on the 25th October, 1854, it is difficult to divine how any 
officer could direct such a charge to be made : destruction was inevitable, 
and nothing could be gained. No doubt there often are cases in which 
one arm of service may consistently be required to sacrifice itself for the 
benefit of the others, but this was not such a case. The most appropriate 
criticism upon this exhibition of insane and useless valor seems to be 
that, no doubt, made by a well-known French general: "C'est bien mag- 



li THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

nifique, mais ce ii'est pas la guerre!" The Russians have been criticized 
for effecting "too much and too little" in the affair of Balaklava : too 
much in indicating to the allies the weakness of their right; too little in 
not availing themselves of this weakness to carry Balaklava. It is pro- 
bable that their object was chiefly to slacken the operations of the siege 
by making a diversion; but it does not appear that they acted with all 
possible energy on this occasion. 

As things went at Inkermann, the result, as far as the English were 
concerned, appears to have been due to that steady and magnificent courage 
of their race, which has so often palliated or overbalanced the follies and 
unskilfulness of their commanders, whether in victory or defeat. Their 
conduct on that day was worthy of the nation which gained credit alike 
at Malplaquet and Landen, Blenheim and Fontenoy, Waterloo and 
Corunna. 

The position of Inkermann is the key-point of the northeastern angle 
of the plateau of the Chersonese; it commands the road ascending the 
plateau by Cathcart's ravine, the only approach from the north side, and 
the road which follows the Careening Bay ravine, the only approach from 
the city in that vicinity ; it is the most elevated ground in the neighbor- 
hood, and is susceptible of a strong defence from whatever direction it 
may be attacked. Were it occupied by the Russians, the siege of the 
Karabelnaia became impossible, and the position of the allies dangerous 
in the extreme; if strongly occupied by the allies, their right became 
perfectly secure. 

Could the Russians have anticipated a siege of Sebastopol, it would 
have been an unpardonable error not to have occupied the Inkermann by 
a small permanent work. How little they were prepared for an attack 
by land will probably be shown in the sequel ; but, as things were, it 
appears to be a grave error not to have intrenched the position from the 
beginning. It was still more inexcusable on the part of the allies to 
have omitted the occupation of the position in force; nor, with proper 
field works, would a very large force have been necessary. 

The Russian plan for the battle of November 5 was most excellent in 
conception ; and, as far as mere orders could go, nothing seemed wanting 
to insure success, and drive the English partly over the steep borders of 
the plateau into the open arms of Gortsehakoff, partly into the sea, and 
the rest to Kamiesch. It must be kept in view that the principal object 
of the Russians in giving battle at the Inkermann was to prevent an 
assault upon the town, then regarded as too weak to resist it: in this 
respect, although at a heavy cost, they gained their point, for they effect- 
ually rendered an assault impossible for many months thereafter. In 
considering the plan of attack, the Russian general rejected the idea of 
a movement on the allied centre, (by the ravine of the inner harbor,) 



THE CRIMEAN WAK. 15 

because it was too eflfectually defended by the siege batteries of the allies ; 
the attack upon their rear was rejected because the plateau was very diffi- 
cult of access, strongly guarded, and the affiiir of Balaklava had induced 
the allies to throw up works in that direction. It was therefore determined 
to attack the English right and centre, making false attacks on the French 
left and towards Balaklava. 

The spirit of the orders issued was as follows : General Soimonoff, with 
16,200 infantry and 38 guns, to march up the Careening Bay ravine, 
ascend its western slope near the Victoria redoubt, and attack the English 
centre. General PauloiF, with 13,500 infantry and 28 guns, to march 
from the north side, descend into and cross the Tchernaya valley at the 
head of the bay, ascend by Cathcart's ravine, and attack the English 
right; the attack of these two commands to be simultaneous. General 
GortschakofF, with about 15,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry, and 40 guns, to 
make a false attack upon Balaklava and the roads leading thence to the 
plateau. General Timofajeif, with some 2,500 men and 4 guns, to make 
a false attack upon the French left, carrying their batteries, if any con- 
fusion were observed among them. The batteries in the town to keep 
up a warm fire. 

A close examination of the ground would indicate the propriety of this 
plan of attack; the difficulty arose in the execution. It would appear 
that in the orders the expression "■ left of the Careening Bay ravine" was 
used for '■^western;" Soimonoff improperly interpreted this as meaning 
his own left, and thus brought his own and Pauloff's column into a state 
of confusion which paralyzed the efi'orts of both, so that but a portion 
of either command was at any one time engaged. 

As it was, the Russians were undoubtedly driving the exhausted Eng- 
lish before them when Bosquet came up. Had the false attack towards 
Balaklava been properly conducted, Bosquet would have been unable to 
assist the English ; but, soon perceiving that the operations of Gortscha- 
koff were confined to a simple cannonade at long range, he readily divined 
the true state of affairs, and by his prompt action saved the army. 

Timofajeif succeeded in spiking fifteen guns, and paralyzed the French 
left. 

It would thus seem that the result of the action was due partly to the 
courage of the English, partly to the mistake of Soimonoff, (who expiated 
his error with his life,) partly to the prompt and correct judgment of 
Bosquet, and mainly to the fact that Gortsehakofi" did not conduct his 
false attack with sufficient energy and decision. 

The desperate courage of the Russians in this afi"air was fully acknow- 
ledged by all who participated in it. 

In the battle of the Tchernaya the principal efibrts of the Russians 
were directed against two points : the Fedukhine heights, occupied by 



16 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

the French, and the hills occupied by the Sardinians, between the Feduk- 
hine and the village of Karlofka Pus, directly opposite Tchorgoun. 

A glance at the map will show the propriety of this attack; for had 
either of these points fallen the other must have followed; and, had the 
Russians followed up the occupation by any active measures, the result 
must have been the suspension of the siege. The question will naturally 
arise, why did the Russians abandon these positions, which were in their 
possession during a part of the preceding winter? The only reasonable 
answer is, that their force was then so small as to be entirely required 
for the defence of the city. 

The Fedukhine heights, the elevation of which is not far from 100', 
extend about two and a half miles along the Tchernaya; their horizontal 
plan is nearly a trident, with the points towards the stream, the central 
branch sending forth some five irregular spurs ; towards the stream the 
slopes are sufficiently steep to render access difficult, while full sweep is 
permitted to the fire of artillery and musketry from the summit, and 
upon any one point from the collateral spurs. 

The aqueduct, which is here a ditch so broad and deep as to be much 
in the way of troops, skirts the northern base of the heights along their 
whole extent. 

The Traktir bridge is directly in the prolongation of the ravine which 
separates the central from the eastern branch of the trident; for more 
than half a mile on each side of the bridge the deep and vertical bed 
of the Tchernaya skirts the aqueduct. 

The Traktir bridge was of masonry, and covered by a weak tete-de- 
pont. 

Either the aqueduct or the stream was in itself a serious obstacle : 
the two combined constituted a formidable obstacle, requiring the use 
of bridges, situated as they were under the close fire of the troops occu- 
pying the heights. 

The same difficulties, to a greater extent, existed at the foot of the Sar- 
dinian heights ; but the attack in this quarter does not appear to have 
been quite so pronounced as that upon the French. Both of these posi- 
tions were strengthened to a certain extent by field works, especially that 
of the Sardinians. 

It is certain that the allies had received intelligence, from a neutral 
capital, that the Russians intended attacking on or about the 18th of 
August; although the precise point was not perhaps specified. 

The Russian reports give their own version of the failure, attributing 
it to a failure on the part of one of their generals to carry out his orders; 
but the foregoing description of the ground may render it probable that 
the repulse was due to the strength of the position and the gallantry of 
its defenders, without seeking for other causes: it may safely be said that 



THE CRIMEA.N WAR. 17 

the defeat of the Russians was not owing to any want of courage and 
impetuosity on their part. 

The events of Inkermann and Traktir seem to lead to the conclusion 
that the Russians moved in too heavy and unwieldy masses : this system 
of tactics, which would on many fields, no doubt, carry all before it, if 
followed by a rapid deployment, in these cases exposed them to terrible 
losses, and rendered impossible that effective development of numerical 
force and- individual exertion which was necessary to carry the day. 

The general configuration of the harbor of Sebastopol, and the penin- 
sula to the south of it, is too well known to require description. The 
most striking and, in their bearing upon the siege, the most important 
features are': First: — The complete isolation of the high plateau of the 
peninsula from the main Crimea by the nearly continuous valleys of 
Balaklava and the Tchernaya. Second : — The lofty and almost inaccessible 
escarpment which limits the plateau towards the east, south, and to a 
great extent on the north. Third : — The deep- and difficult ravines which 
intersect this very irregular surface. 

Some points of the plateau exceed 700' in elevation ; the average 
height of the escarpment above the valleys of Balaklava and the Tcher- 
naya may safely be taken at 400'. It need scarcely be stated that this 
plateau formed for the allies a position of great strength. 

Of the many ravines by which it is intersected, it is only those from 
the Careening to the Quarantine bays, inclusive, that have an immediate 
bearing on the works of attack and defence. All of these have their 
origin quite close to the eastern border of the plateau. 

The most important is the great central ravine, the main branch of 
which commences quite" near the " Col de Balaklava," — the depression 
through which the main road from Balaklava to Kamiesch ascends the 
plateau, — then runs a little west of north, forming, where it enters the 
town, the inner harbor, which separates Sebastopol from the Karabelnaia 
suburb. During nearly the first half of the siege the French' approaches 
were confined to the west of this ravine, occupying all the space thence 
to the sea; while the English were on the east, occupying the ground 
only as far as the Otchakoif ravine : in other words, the original French 
attack was directed against the city proper, while that of the English was 
against a portion of the Karabelnaia suburb. 

.It is now time to state that when the allies reached Balaklava the land 
defences of Sebastopol, on the south side, consisted of a loop-holed wall, 
4' 8" thick, and from 18' to 20' high, extending from the western point 
of Artillery 'bay to the position afterwards occupied by the Central Bas- 
tion ; thence around the Karabelnaia suburb to the main harbor the only 
defence consisted of the Malakofi" tower, a semicircular structure, with 
two stories of loop-holes and 5 guns in barbette. 

2 



IS ' THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

To resume the description of the ground west of the central ravine : 
the Artillery Bay ravine commences about three-quarters of a mile out- 
side of the city, and at first runs nearly north, being separated from a 
spur of the central ravine by a ridge about one-eighth of a mile wide^ on 
the highest point of this ridge was situated the Flag-staff Bastion, (Bas- 
tion duMat;) the French approaches followed this ridge, and extended 
across the Artillery Bay ravine, which is here by no means steep or diflS- 
cult, but becomes much more pronounced upon entering the city, when it 
for some distance runs off to the west of north. 

Just before this ravine enters the city there commences to the west of 
it, and separated from it by a ridge about one-eighth of a mile wide, another 
ravine, which runs into the Quarantine bay, and which we will call the 
Central Bastion ravine ; the direction of this ravine is nearly northwest ; 
near its head, and on the highest point of the ridge which separates it 
from the Artillery Bay raviiie, is situated the Central Bastion, at an ele- 
vation of 217' above the sea. 

The loop-holed wall, and the works eonstsucted to replace or strengthen 
it, follow this ridge for about three-quarters of the distance to the Qua- 
rantine batteries, and then iurn off to the north ; from this angle to the 
batteries a line of works called the Quarantine redans was erected during 
the siege. 

The French attacks against the Central Bastion followed the ridge 
on which it was built, and to the, westward occupied the irregular ridge 
between the Central Bastion ravine and the Quarantine Bay ravine, then 
crossed this last ravine and terminated at the shore of the Black Sea, 
where powerful batteries were erected. The Central Bastion ravine has 
rather gentle slopes, and is by no means so difficult as those on the eastern 
side of the great central ravine : in fact, approaches could be carried over 
it, and did, indeed, extend into it. 

Passing to the east of the central ravine, Cathcart's hill, which will be 
found on all the maps, may be taken as a starting-point. 

On the west and east sides of this hill two difficult ravines commence : 
the first, called by the- English the Valley of Death, unites with the cen- 
tral ravine about one mile from the southern extremity of the inner har- 
bor ; the second, by which the Woronzoff road enters the city, joins the 
central ravine at the very end of the inner harbor. The isolated spur 
thus formed was occupied by- the English left attack, the only object of 
which was to establish batteries to assist the French attack- upon the 
Flag-staff Bastion', and the English right attack upon the Eedan, as well 
as to protect the flanks of those attacks ; for the ravines bordering this 
spur are so deep and difficult as to .render it impossible to cross them 
either by trenches or assaulting columns. 

Farther to the east is the Otchakoff ravine, running nearly parallel to 



THE CRIMEAN WAR. 19 

the Woronzoff ravine, much less difficult, and directed upon the Dock 
Yard bay. On the highest point of the ridge separating the two ravines 
last named, and at its end nearest the town, were situated the Redan and 
the Barrack battery; the English right attack followed the ridge. To 
the eastward of the OtchakofF ravine, and nearly parallel to it, is the 
Careening Bay ravine, the most difficult of all. On the highest poidt at 
the end of the ridge thus formed was placed the Malakoff, at an elevation 
• of 333' ; the Little Redan (Batterie Noire) occupied a considerably lower 
point to the northeast of the Malakoff, while the work known as the 
IMamelon Vert, or Branyion redoubt, crowned a hill on the same ridge, 
about three-eighths of a mile to the southeast of the Malakoff, and 40' 
more elevated ; the French attacks against the three works named occu- 
pied the summit and higher slopes of the ridge. 

Between the Careening Bay ravine and the main harbor is situated the 
high and narrow ridge known as Mount Sapoune. Points of this ridge 
were occupied by the Volhynia and Sel6nghinsk redoubts, (ouvrages 
Liancs,) which acted vrpon the flank of the French approaches against the 
Mamelon, and would have taken in reverse the approaches thence against 
the Malakoff. The French approaches against the redoubts wound along 
the summit of the Sapoune ridge. In rear of the Redan and Malakoff, 
more especially in the latter case, the ground fell rapidly to the level of 
the Karabelnaia and the bay ; in rear of the loop-holed wall the ground 
also soon fell rapidly into theArtillery Bay ravine, leaving, however, a 
plateau Jof sonie little width immediately behind the defences, which thus 
screened the greater part of the town and harbor from the view of those 
in the trenches.. 

From the course known to have been pursued by the Russians in other 
cases, the nature of the ground, the appearance of the works at the close 
of the siege, and the remarks of officers on both sides, it would appear 
that when Todtleben was called upon to fortify Sebastopol, in presence of 
the enemy, he commenced by occupying most of the important points 
that have been mentioned by detached works, generally closed at the 
gorge. The first efforts of the garrison were directed towards giving these 
sufficient strength to resist assault; afterwards they were conijected by 
re-entering lines of a weaker profile, which served to enfilade the ravines 
and flank the main works. These lines were generally, but not always, 
continuous. 

One of the early measures was to construct rifle-pits, which were often 
advanced to a very considerable distance. 

The most important points of the main line of defence should pro- 
bably be classed in the following order of strength : 1st. The Flag-staff 
Bastion; 2d. Central Bastion; 3d. Malakoff; 4th. Redan; 5th. Little 
Redan. 



20 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

The Flag-staff Bastion was, on account of the ground, a somewhat irre- 
gular figure, — nearly a lunette. The ditch of the right face was flanked 
by two guns in a blinded caponiere ; the left face was flanked by four 
guns, in a return of the epaulmenl which extended from the rear of the 
work along the crest of the central ravine, and finally down to the bottom 
of the valley. The command of the work could not have varied much 
from 15'. The ditch was about 30' wide, and from 12' to 15' deep; its 
slopes steep, often vertical. Against a portion of the scarp, near the 
salient, rested a row of palisades some 10' high, and uninjured by the fire. 
This was the only case of palisading observed in any part of the ditches. 
The work was provided with a glacis and covered way, the interior slope of 
the latter revetted with gabions. Shelters were excavated in the counter- 
scarp, under the covered way. There was a small battery in the covered 
way of the left face. It was in front of this bastion that the principal 
mining operations were conducted : on the part of" the French to advance 
their approaches, on the part of the Russians to frustrate the attempt. 
The craters were from 12' to 15' in .depth, and in a very rocky soil. The 
French never succeeded in carrying the work, nor in crowning the crest 
of the glacis. 

Some portions of the exterior slope were revetted with gabions. These 
were sadly disfigured, but still presented a formidable obstacle. It is 
most probable that this system was resorted to only as a rapid means of 
repairing damages. 

The guns were mounted on a narrow rampart, with traverses for. each- 
gun, and parados on the right face. Here, as well as in all the other land 
defences, ships' guns mounted on ships' carriages, and worked by side 
tackle and breechings, were alone employed. In this battery many of 
the embrasures were revetted with the common boiler-iron ships' water- 
tanks, cubes 4' on each edge. These were filled with earth, and three 
were employed to revet each cheek. In one embrasure thirteen shot and 
shell had struck a cheek thus revetted, yet the embrasure was perfectly 
serviceable. In some cases traverses were made of these tanks. Their 
sides were sometimes used instead of the rope mantelets. The rope man- 
telets we;-e suspended from a horizontal spar laid across the top of the 
embrasure and lashed to stout stakes : they were 4" thick, and made of 
three thicknesses of rope sewed together. A hole was left in the lower 
part for the gun to run through, and often a circle of similar construction 
was placed upon the gun, a small aperture being left for pointing. This 
arrangement was rendered indispensable by the great depth of embrasure 
required for ships' carriages, and was found to afford ample protectior 
against rifle-balls and small grape. 

The bomb-proofs were generally ample in number ; they were sometimes 
under the rampart, sometimes under the second line of defence, (where 



THE CRIMEAN WAR. 21 

sucli a line existed,) often under special traverses, and occasionally entirely 
under ground. Their height was generally 6' and upwards, the width 
sufficient for two rows of banquette beds ; the length varied exceedingly ; 
the roof was generally composed of 18" timber, for the most part pieces 
of masts ; the minimum depth of earth on top seemed to be 6'. . As I 
observed none which were broken in by shells, it may be a fair inference 
that this depth was sufficient. 

Many of the bomb-proofs were lined with boards, had fireplaces and 
chimneys, were well ventilated, and whitewashed. Latrines were arranged 
■in special bomb-proofs, movable casks with seats over them being employed. 

The Flag-staflF Bastion had a second line of defence, which was filled 
with bomb-proofs. 

The Central was similar in construction to, yet weaker in profile than, 
the Flag-staff Bastion; its steep scarp and counterscarp rendered it, indeed, 
a formidable obstacle to assault. With such defenders as the Russians, 
it is no discredit to the French that their patient yet brilliant efforts 
failed to achieve success. The loop-holed wall was either covered by a 
rampart and parapet, or entirely replaced by a simple parapet; wherever 
it remained exposed it was much injured by the long cannonade to which 
it was subjected. 

The Quarantine, Redans were little more than a simple trench, with 
the gabionade thrown forward about 3', thus affording a banquette ; the 
soil in this part was even more rocky than in front of the bastions just 
described. 

The strength of profile of the works east of the central ravine was very 
much less than that of the Flag-staff and Central Bastions. The remem- 
brance of the history of the progress of the siege will explain the seeming 
anomaly that points, now generally considered of secondary importance, 
should be more strongly fortified than those which common opinion pro- 
nounces the key-points of the position. Until the spring of 1855, all the 
efforts of the French were directed against the Flag-staff and Central 
Bastions ; and for some reason or other (probably the languor with which 
their approaches were pushed) the Russians seemed to attach very little 
importance to the operations of the English. It was therefore natural 
and proper that the Russians should avail themselves of the time em- 
ployed by the allies in preparing to open their fire, and of the slackness 
of the fire during the winter, to turn all their efforts upon the points 
attacked. It is probable that serious work upon the Malakoff scarcely 
commenced before the French opened their trenches against it: it was 
therefore carried on under much more unfavorable circumstances. 

In the leisurely construction of a system of permanent defences for 
Sebastopol, the neglect of the Malakoff and Sapoune ridges would have 
been indeed inexcusable; but the actual works were constructed for the 



22 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

most .part under fire, and always in sight of the enemy. The garrison 
was for a long time weak for so extensive a position, and the supply of 
tools was always inadequate in amount and wretched in quality : looking 
at their miserable tools, it was a source of astonishment that such mo-autic 
results could have been achieved with such paltry means. 

The Redan was more properly a salient bastion, and appearances indi- 
cated that it was originally a detached lunette, closed at the gorge by a 
bastioned front, having a good ditch, banquette, &c. ; in fact, this gorge 
front still existed in fair condition at the close of the siege, the left half 
bastion alone having, for some reason, been nearly levelled. The Redan 
was afterwards connected with the Barrack battery on the one hand, and 
on the other extended by the line of works crowning the western crest 
of the Otchakoff ravine. The nature of the ground, especially near the 
salient, was such that the scarp and counterscarp were more gentle than 
in the bastions already described. Without pretending to enter into 
details which would necessarily be imperfect, the best practical idea of 
tlie real nature of the work will be derived from the fact that, although 
no breach was made, the English, on the 8th September, entered the 
work without using the ladders. The details of the interior were similar 
to those of the Flag-staff Bastion, the guns being covered by traverses 
and parados, which formed shelters very favorable to an attacking column 
after it had once effected an entrance. It should be distinctly stated 
that the Redan had no second line of defence. 

In front the ground has a very gentle slope and is unobstructed; the 
works connecting the Redan with the Barrack battery border the, preci- 
pitous side of the great ravine ; " thp ground occupied by the work itself 
slopes gently from the salient towards tha gorge ; in rear it falls rapidly 
towards the inner harbor, but somewhat less so to the north, so that access 
is not very difficult from that direction. 

In the immediate vicinity of the Redan there was a series of remarkable 
bomb-proofs, excavated in the solid rock : first, a ditch 12' wide and 4' 
deep was excavated; then holes for a couple of men each were fqrmed on 
each side of the ditch, each hofe being 6' long, 5' high, and 3' wide. 

In the same locality arrangements were observed for firing canister 
from a 13" mortar. 

The line of works extending from the Redan along the crest of the* 
Otchakoff ravine varied much at different points ; in some places the ditch 
was excavated to the depth of 6' and 8' in the rock, in others the coun- 
terscarp was wholly artificial; portions of the abatis still remained in 
front of this line. This line did not extend continuously to the Malakoff, 
but was broken where it crossed the Otchakoff ravine, detached retired 
batteries enfilading the latter. 

The Malakoff also was a salient bastion, its right face being slightly 



THE CRIMEAN WAR. . 23 

•broken to the front; the bastion enclosed the remains of the tower, the 
lower story of which was covered by the parapet. 

An ample estimate for the profile of the Malakoff at the salient would 
probably be, command 1-i'j thickness of parapet, 18'; ditch, 18' wide and 
12' deep. At all events, such was the condition of affairs that the Zouaves, 
who formed the storming party on the 8th September, entered the work 
without the aid of ladders. 

The Malakoff Bastion (called' by the Russians Korniloff, the name 
Malakoff being applied by them only to the tower) occupied the eastern 
crest of a hill rising from the general surface of the ridge, and terminating 
it towards the town ; the slope of the hill towards the French approaches 
was gentle, while towards the Karabelnaia suburb it was steep, difficult, 
and obstructed in the extreme; to the north and south the ground fell 
away rapidly. In rear of the bastion an irregular redoubt occupied the 
remainder of the summit of the hill ; the parapet did not always follow the 
ditch, but was often broken into saw-teeth (to obtain better directions for 
the guns) while the ditch ran in a straight line. With regard to the 
bastion and redoubt two errors were committed : in the first place, two 
epaulments were left standing, extending from near the flanks of the 
bastion to the redoubt, which afforded easy access to the latter from the 
parapet of the former ; in the second place, the bastion was literally filled 
with traverses covering the bomb-proof shelters ; these traverses entirely 
nullified, the effect of the fire of the redoubt upon the troops who gained 
the bastion, and afforded them complete shelter. As these bomb-proofs 
were absolutely necessary to enable the garrison to hold the work during 
the- bombardment, it is not perhaps exactly proper to designate their con- 
struction as an error, although their existence proved fatal at the time of 
the assault. The evil might have been remedied either by sinking the 
bomb-proofs entirely under ground, or by giving to the mass of earth 
above a glacis slope towards the salient; although the latter arrangement 
would have required much space. The interior slopes of all the works 
were revetted with gabions, crowned with fascines and sand-bags. From 
{he Malakoff to the Little Redan abatis, military pits, spikes, and caltrops 
with four barbed points, stuck through planks, were freely employed. 
These things were also employed in front of other parts of the defences. 
Explosive machines, on the Jacobi principle, were also employed. 

The Russian engineers appeared to have relied upon the artillery fire of 
the collateral works for flanking defences and acting upon the ground in 
front of any particular work, rather than upon the immediate flanking 
arrangements of the special work in question. The entire absence of 
blinded batteries is somewhat remarkable. There. can be no doubt that 
such batteries at the salients of the principal works would have exercised 
a very great influence. 



24 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

The Mamelon Vert was situated on the summit of a mound of no con- 
siderable elevation above the general surface of the ridge ; the eastern 
slope was gentle, while it was more abrupt on the other sides, particularly 
towards the west. It was difficult or impossible to determine the original 
form of the work. It appeared to have been a redan, with a pan-coupe, 
the right face flanked by the Malakoff, the left by the Little Redan, the 
pan-coupe by the Sapoune redoubts ; yet it is not iniprobable.that it was 
a lunette. The Sapoune redoubts appear to have been lunettes, with a 
command of 7', the ditch 5' deep and 12' wide, a glacis 2' in height. 
Even in these detached works excellent bomb-proofs were provided. 

The Russian counter-approaches generally consisted of fieches, united 
by a simple trench. 

The famous rifle-pits varied much in character. Sometimes they con- 
sisted merely of a little pile of stones, or two gabions, placed on their 
hides, forming an angle merely sufficient to shelter one man ; at other 
times, of a hole in the ground for four or five men ; again, of semicircles 
or fleches capable of holding from ten to forty men. 

In front of the Volhynian redoubt there were two lines of these semi- 
circular shelters, uniting at an acute angle about two hundred and fifty 
yards in advance of the work, and extending across the ridge. In advance 
of the angle were two rows of small ones for one or two men each. These 
particular semicircles were eight paces wide at the gorge, had a pairapet 
4' high, the interior being excavated. In many cases these pits were 
thrown much farther in advance, and in very exposed situations. They 
contributed very materially towards impeding the progress of the ap- 
proaches. 

From the preceding hasty and imperfect account of the defences of Se- 
bastopol, it will appear how little foundation there was for the generally 
received accounts of the stupendous dimensions of the works, and of new 
systems of fortifications brought into play. Tke plain truth is that these 
defences were simple temporary fortifications of rather greater dimensions 
than usual, and that not a single new principle of engineering was there 
developed. It is true that there were several novel minor details, such as 
the rope mantelets, the use of the iron tanks, &c. ; but the whole merit 
consisted in the admirable adaptation of well-known principles to the 
peculiar locality and circumstances of the case. Neither can it be asserted 
that the plans of the various works were perfect. On the contrary, there 
■ is no impropriety in believing that, if Todtleben were called upon to do 
the same work over again, he would probably introduce better close-flank- 
ing arrangements. 

These remarks are not intended to, nor can they, detract from the repu- 
tation of the Russian engineer. His labors and their results will be 
handed down in history as the most triumphant and enduring monument 



THE CRIMEAN WAR. " 25 

of the value of fortifications, and his name must ever be placed in the 
first rank of military engineers. But, in our admiration of the talent and 
energy of the engineer, it must not be forgotten that the inert masses 
which he raised would have been useless without the skilful artillery and 
heroic infantry who defended them. Much stronger places than Sebas- 
topol have often fallen under far less obstinate and well-combined attacks 
than that to which it was subjected. There can be no danger in express- 
ing the conviction that the siege of Seba^topol called forth the most 
magnificent defence of fortifications that hasi ever yet occurred. 

This would seem to be.the proper .place to notice a popular fallacy which, 
for a time at least, gained extensive credence. It was, that the feiege of 
Sebastopol proved the superiority of temporary (earthen) fortifications 
over those of a permanent nature. It is easy to show that it proved 
nothing of the. kind, but that it only proved that temporary works in the 
hands of a brave and skilful garrison are susceptible of a longer defence 
than was generally supposed. They were attacked as field works never 
were before, and were defended as field works never had been defended. 
The main difierence between properly-constructed permanent fortifications 
(intended to resist a siege) and temporary works is, that the latter seldom 
present an insuperable obstacle against assault, while the former always 
do. In . addition, permanent works have a better command over the 
adjacent country, and are more carefully and perfectly planned. The 
masonry walls, which render an assault impossible, cannot be seen from 
the distance, and can be destroyed only by establishing batteries on the 
crest of the glacis or the edge of the ditch.; the earthen parapets alone 
being visible beyond that point, they may, until the besiegers arrive there, 
be regarded in the same light as field works, with the difference that the 
garrison are not harassed by the necessity of being constantly prepared 
to repel an assault. Now, in the siege of Sebastopol, the trenches of the 
besiegers never reached the edge of the ditch ; so that, had the fortifica- 
tion been a permanent one, the most difficult, slow, and dangerous part of 
the siege remained to be undertaken, viz. : — the crowning of the covered 
way, the establishment of the breach batteries,' the descent and passage 
of the ditch, and the assault of the breach : in other words, at the moment 
when the weakness of the temporary works became apparent and fatal, 
the true strength of the permanent defences would have commenced 
coming into play. 

Assuming the progress of the attack to have been as rapid as it was 
under existing circumstances, the besiegers, on the 8th of September, 
would not yet have been in a condition to crowa the covered way, the 
siege would certainly have extended into the winter ; and it may even be 
doubted whether the place would eventually have fallen, until the allies 
were in sufficient force to invest the north as well as the south side. 



26 THEARMIESOFEUROPE. 

From the fleet and the naval arsenals were undoubtedly derived the 
means of arming and equipping the land defences ; on many occasions 
the fire of the vessels up the ravines, as well as their vertical fire, was 
probably attended with effect: yet I can see no reason to coincide in the 
opinion that the presence of the fleet justified the allies in failing to 
advance upon the town immediately after their arrival in front of it. No 
doubt the fire of the vessels would have rendered it impossible for the 
allies to have occupied immediately the lower parts of the town and the 
shores of the harbor; but the nature of the ground was such- that they 
could- have opposed no serious resistance to the allied occupation of the 
positions subsequently occupied by the Malakoff, Redan, and Flag-staff 
Bastion. Once holding these points, it would have been easy for the 
allies to establish batteries commanding at once the fleet and the town; 
defence would have been impossible, and the opening of their fire must 
have been the signal alike for the destruction of the fleet and the evacua- 
tion of the south side. 

We will now pass to the works of attack. 

Sp great was their extent, some 6 miles from the extreme right to the 
farthest left, with a development that has been stated, probably without 
exaggeration, to exceed 40 miles, and so broken was the ground over 
which they stretched, that it is impossible to give in a report like this 
any thing approaching to a definite idea of their plan. An endeavor will 
be made merely to point out how far the besiegers departed from, or con- 
formed to, their established systems for works of this nature. 

As the selection of the points of attack, and the positions to be occu- 
pied to cover the siege, must first have engaged the attention of the allied 
commanders, they will naturally be the first objects for our consideration. 

In the determination of the position for covering the siege there were 
two things to be considered : 1st, the power of resisting the efforts of a 
relieving army; 2d, the facility of bringing up to the front the Various 
supplies required in the operations. 

The strength of the position afforded by the plateau of the Chersonese 
has already been referred to ; with the small force at first present on the 
part of the allies, it is certain that their position would have been much 
stronger and more secure had they confined themselves to the occupation 
of the plateau, holding the valleys to the cast only by detachments to 
observe the enemy. The English, supposing that their position and 
point of attack remained as it was, w#)uld have had a somewhat greater 
distance to pass over in the transportation of their supplies; but by 
abandoning Balaklava for Kazatch they would have obtained a much 
more extensive and convenient harbor, and the united efforts of the two 
armies would have enabled them to construct, in ample season, a good 



THE CRIMEAN WAR. 27 

road for the passage of tteir trains. Had the siege been undertaken by 
a French army alone, it can scarcely be doubted that Kamieseh and 
Kazatch would have been used to the exclusion of Balaklava; at all 
events, Balaklava would have been employed only as a temporary depot, 
when the roads were good and the enemy at a distance : here the insupe- 
rable evils of a divided command probably intervened. In this case the 
barren and disastrous day of Balaklava would never have occurred ; the 
force and labor employed in protecting Balaklava would have placed the 
position of Inkermann in such a state of defence as either to have de- 
terred the Russians from engaging in the battle, or to have secured the 
victory to the allies without the frightful cost and great uncertainty 
attending that eventful contest. 

In the actual condition of affairs, if either on the 25th October or the 
5th November the Russians had succeeded in carrying Balaklava, the 
English army would have been reduced to the most desperate extremity 
by the total loss of all its supplies and means of transportation. It is 
possible that the result would have been the total abandonment of the 
siege, and a retreat upon Kamieseh, -to embark there as rapidly as trans- 
► portation could be obtained. 

To anticipate objections, it may be stated that, during the winter of 
1854 and 1855, no supplies were drawn from the country beyond Balak- 
lava, and that the only advantages derived from its occupation were : — 
inextricable confusion in unloading vessels and despatching supplies, 
arising from the want of size of the harbor,- and the steejraess of its 
banks ; wretched roads over the muddy soil ; a steep ascent to be over- 
come in reaching the plateau; finally, the constant and lively anticipation 
of being entirely deprived of these uncertain advantages upon the first reso- 
lute attack by the enemy in force. The most probable reasons for the selec- 
tion of Balaklava as the English depot are, that it was somewhat nearer 
the position on the plateau; that it was not taken by the French; and 
that, since it existed, it would be a pity that it should remain idle. 

We may now turn to the point of attack. 

The facts of the case are well known. For many months the operations 
of the French were directed entirely against the Flag-staff and Central 
Bastions, the English being engaged in what may be termed two false 
attacks against the. Redan. 

It was not until the spring of 1855 that the efforts of the French 
were at last turned towards securing possession of the Malakoff. 

To appreciate the merits of this question, it is necessary again to refer 
to the map, to bear in mind that the heights overlooking the Karabelnaia 
were considerably more elevated than those bordering upon the main city, 
and that the docks and other naval, as well as military, establishments 
were all located in the Karabelnaia suburb. 



28 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

Were the Flag-staff Bastion carried, but a single step was gained; 
beyond it existed at least two lines of defence, both difficult to carry, 
before even the main city was reached. While these new approaches 
were being constructed, it would have been a simple matter for the 
Russians to border the commanding heights of the Karabelnaia with new 
batteries directed against the town; the fire from these, together with 
that from the works on the north side, would have rendered the victors 
very uncomfortable and insecure in their barren conquest; and the fleet 
could have retired to the vicinity of the Careening bay, where it, as well 
as the docks, would have been secure against direct injury. 

By taking the Malakoff, the fleet and the establishments of the Rus- 
sians lay exposed at the feet of the allies; its commanding position and 
proximity to the main harbor rendered further resistance useless when 
once occupie'd by them. Considerations relating to the facility of bring- 
ing up supplies and covering their depot very probably determined the 
direction of the early French . attacks, but by no means diminish the 
credit due to General Neil, who first turned the efi'orts of his countrymen 
in the right dir.ection. 

If a deficiency in men and means is assigned as a reason for the early* 
operations of the allies, it is but another proof that, in undertaking the 
affair, they neglected one of the clearest rules of war; that is, to under- 
take no important .operation without full and reliable information as to 
the obstacles to be overcome, and the means of resistance in the hands 
of the enemy. 

Enough has already been .said to justify the belief that a dilemma, 
difficult of solution, might be presented for the consideration of the allies : 
on the one hand, the comparatively small scale upon which the original 
expedition was organized, — the intimation contained in some of the French 
instructions that " half a siege train" would suffice to capture Sebastopol, . 
and the absence of all preparations for passing the winter in the Crimea, 
would indicate that the allied governments were well aware of the real 
weakness of Sebastopol at that time, and intended that it should be carried 
by a " coup de vigeur;" on the other hand, from the moment the armies 
landed, every movement was conducted in a manner indicating that the 
generals were under the impression that formidable defences were in 
front of them, and that nothing serious could be attempted until further 
supplies and reinforcements were received. 

In regard to the detailed execution of the French attacks, little or 
nothing novel is to be observed. Even when coolly examining the 
direction of their trenches, after the close of the siege, it was very rarely 
that a faulty direction could be detected : they always afforded excellent 
cover, and were well defiladed ; in some cases the excavation of the 
double direct sap was carried to the depth of 6 J' in the solid rock. 



THE CRIMEAN WAR. 29 

The execution of many of the saps and batteries was worthy of a school 
of practice. In the parallels, bomb-proofs were provided as temporary 
hospitals, offices for the generals on duty, &c. They did not use the 
sapper armor. The use of the sap roller was -often attempted, but it 
could be employed only during the latter part of the attack upon the 
Malakoff, when the fire of the Russian artillery was nearly extinguished 
by the mortars ; before that, as soon as a sap roller was placed in position 
some 30 guns would be brought to bear upon it, the result. being its 
immediate destruction. 

It may justly be said of the French approaches, that they admirably 
carried into practice their system of sapping. The technical skill and 
patient courage evinced by their officers and men in pushing forward 
such excellent approaches, under a most deadly fire, is worthy of all com- 
mendation, and is such as might have been expected from the antecedents 
of their corps of engineers. With regard to the English the case was 
difierent : it seemed as if they systematically abandoned the excellent 
system taught and perfected with so much care at Chatham. 

Whenever the ground was difficult, their trenches generally ceased to 
afibrd shelter ; a shallow excavation in the rock, and a few stones thrown 
up in front, appeared to be all that was considered necessary in such 
ciases. They were often faulty in direction as well as in profile, being 
not unfrequently badly defiladed, or not gaining ground enough, and 
entirely too cramped; nor were they pushed as close to the Redan as 
they ought to have been before giving the assault. 

In too many cases the expression " tatonnement" of the French would 
seem to convey the best idea of their operations. Their batteries, how- 
ever, were very well constructed. Their magazines, platforms, &c., were 
iTSually similar to those adopted at Chatham, although unnecessary devia- 
tions were sometimes complained of. 

They employed neither armor nor the full sap; sometimes the half- 
full, but generally the flying sap were employed. The excellent English 
magazines were generally covered with 7" or 8" timber, 2 . layers of 
fascines, 2 layers of sand-bags, and 5' or 6' of earth. During the siegfe 
three were exploded by 13" shells; but it was supposed that in two of 
these cases the shells burst in the passage, as similar magazines resisted 
13" shells falling on the roof; in the third case the magazine was first 
struck fairly on the roof by a 13" shell, which laid it bare to the sand- 
bags ; the corporal of sappers in charge, being intoxicated, neglected to 
repair the damage, when another 13" shell struck in the same place and 
exploded the magazine. 

A very good gabion was made, by the English, of the iron hoops of 
bales of hay, casks, &c. They were 3' high and 2' in diameter, having 
11 stakes of sawed wood. The iron hoops were wattled as the ordinary 



80 THEARMIESOFEUROPE. ■ 

■withes, and were bound by iron straps running tlie whole length of the 
gabion. These were much emplgyed in revetting the cheeks of embra- 
sures, thus avoiding the use of raw hides. The first pair of gabions, at 
the throat, should not be of iron, since it was found that shot would, often 
tear off pieces of the straps, which caused bad wounds. 

Gabions were also made of split hoops. 

The fascines were bound with iron straps, twisted by pincers, in addi- 
tion to the ordinary withes. The dimensions of their materials varied 
much in size, being made by different parties. 

Saud-bags were very much employed in revetting batteries, tra- 
verseSf &c. 

Latrines were provided at the extremities of parallels and boyaux, and 
cleansed with lime every day. 

Water tanks and reservoirs were provided in the parallels, and filled 
every morning and evening by means of pack-animals. 

During the siege the English working parties and guards of the 
trenches generally paraded at 6J P.M., and moved off after dark, often 
suffering severely before reaching the trenches. The guards of the 
trertches went on duty in their red coats and forage caps, without knap- 
sacks; \7orking parties in working dress, and armed; muskets on the 
reverse of the trench. Grenerally double seiitinels were" posted, on their 
bellies, about 50 yards in advance of the trench. 

Materials, guns, ammunition, &c., were carHed up at night, ''over the 
open." 

The result of the operations of this long and eventful siege was that 
on the 8th of September, 1855, the French had, at a great cost of life 
and labor, pushed their approaches to the distance of 82 paces from the 
counterscarp of the Malakoff, and not quite so near the other works. 
The English, meanwhile, had scarcely reached within 225 yards of the 
ditch of the Redan. 

On' that day the assault was made at noon upon at least six points. 

A few minutes later than the assault upon the Malakoff, the English 
attacked the Redan. The Russians being now upon the alert, they did 
not pass over the open space before them without loss ; but the mass 
succeeded in crossing the ditch and gaining' the salient of the work. 
Finding themselves entirely unsupported, they at once took shelter behind 
the traverses, whence the example, and efforts of their officers did not 
avail to draw them, in order to occupy the work closing the gorge. 
Having in vain used every effort, having despatched every officer of his 
staff to the rear urging that supports should be at once sent up, and 
seeing that the Russians were now beginning to assemble in force, the com- 
mander of the English storming party reluctantly determined to proceed 
himself to obtain reinforcements. Scarcely had he reached the trenches, 



THE CRIMEAN WAR. 31 

•and at last obtained authority to move up the required succor, when, upon 
turning to lead them, forward, he saw the party he had left in the work 
rapidly and hopeles&ly driven out at the point of the bayonet. No further 
effort was made to carry the work. It would, in all probability, have 
failed, and would only have caused a useless sacrifice of men. 

The failure of the English assault may be attributed partly to the fact 
that their advanced trenches were too small- to accommodate the requisite 
force without confusion, in part to their not being pushed sufficiently 
near the Eedau, but chiefly to that total absence of conduct and skill in 
the arrangements for the assault which left the storming party entirely 
without support. Had it been followed at once by strong reinforcements, 
it is almost certain that the English would have retained possession of the 
work. 

The two French attacks on the west of the central ravine were probably 
intended only as feints : at all events, the parties engaged were soon driven 
back to their trenches with considerable loss, and effected nothing. Their 
attempts upon the Little Kedan, and the works connecting it with the 
Malakoff", met with even less success than the English assault. The 
Russians repulsed the French with great loss, meeting with the bayonet 
the move adventurous men who reached the parapet. Thus, in five points 
out of six, the defenders were fully victorious, but, unfortunately for them, 
the sixth was the decisive point. 

In their admirable arrangements for the attack of the Malakoff', the 
French counted on two things for success : — first, they had ascertained that 
the Ilussians were in the habit of relieving the guard of the Malakoff at 
noon, and that a great part of the old guard marched out before the new 
one arrived, in order to avoid the loss which would arisQ from crowding 
the work with men; in the second place, it was determined to keep up 
a most violent vertical fire until the very moment of the assault, thus 
driving the Ilussians into the bomb-proofs, and enabliiig the storming 
party to enter the work with "but little opposition. ' The hour of noon was 
therefore selected for the assault, and the strong columns intended for the 
work were at ah early hour assembled in the advanced trenches, all in 
admirable order, and furnished with precise instructions. 

The mortars maintained an unremitting fire until the moment appointed. 
The very instant the last volley was discharged, the storming party of 
Zouaves rushed over the thirty paces before them, and were in the work 
before the asttonishfed Ilussians knew what had happened. It was stated 
that this party lost but eleven men in entering the work. Other troops 
advanced rapidly to the support of the storming party, a bridge was formed 
by rolling up five ladders with planks lashed to them, a communication 
was at once commenced between the advanced trench and the bridge, 
brigade after brigade passed over, the redoubt was at once occupied by the 



32 THE Aim IE S OF EUROPE. 

storming party, and thus the Malakoff, and with it Sebastopol, was won. 
The few Russians remaining in the work made a desperate resistance. 
Many gallant attempts, were made by Russian columns to ascend the 
steep slope in rear and regain the lost work ;. but the road was narrow, 
difficult,- and obstructed, the position strong, and the French in force. 
All their furious eiforts were in vain, and the Malakoff Remained in the 
possession of- those who had so gallantly and skilfully won it. With 
regard to the firial retreat to the north side, it can only be said that a per- 
sonal examination of the locality merely confirms its necessity, and the 
impression so generally entertained that it was the finest operation of the 
war: so admirably was it carried out that not a straggler remained behind; 
a few men so severely wounded as to be unfit for rough and hurried trans- 
portation were the sole ghastly human trophies that remained to the allies. 
The retreat, being a more difficult operation than the assault, may be 
worthy of higher admiration ; but the Russian retreat to the north side 
and the French assault upon the Malakoff must each be regarded as a 
masterpiece of its kind, deserving the closest study. It is difficult to 
imagine what point in either can be criticized; for both evinced con- 
summate skill, discipline, coolness, and courage. With regard to the 
artillery, I would merely remark that the Russian guns were not of 
unusual calibre, consisting chiefly of 24, 32, and 42 pounders, and that 
the termination of the siege was mainly due to the extensive use of 
mortars finally resorted to by the alliies. If they had been employed in 
the beginning as the main reliance, the siege would have been of shorter 
duration. 

"The causes of the unusual duration of this siege naturally resolve them- 
selves into three classes : the skilful disposition of the Russians, the faults 
of the allies, and natural causes beyond the control of either party. 
Among the latter may be mentioned the natural strength of the position 
and the severity of the winter. In the first class, there may be alluded 
to : — the skill with which the Russian engineers availed themselves of the 
nature of the ground; the moral, courage which induced them to under- 
take the defence of an open town with a weak garrison; the constant use 
they made of sorties, among which may properly be classed the battles 
of Balaklavxi, Inkermann, and the Tchernaya; the ready ingenuity with 
which they availed themselves of the resources derived from the fleet; 
the fine practice of their artillery; their just appreciation of the true use 
of field works, and the admirable courage they always evinced in standing 
to their works torepel assaults at the point of the bayonet; the employ- 
ment of rifle-pits on an extensive scale; finally, the constant reinforce- 
ments which they soon commenced receiving, and which enabled them to 
fill the gaps made in their ranks by disease and the projectiles of the allies. 
The evidences of skill on the part of the allies, as well as the apparent 



THE CRIMEAN WxVR. 33 

faults on all sides, having been already alluded to, it is believed that the 
means have been furnished to enable any one to draw his own conclusions 
as to the history of this memorable passage of arms. 

At different times during the siege a vast amount of labor was bestowed 
upon field works in front of Karaiesch and Balaklava, near the Inker- 
mann, on the northern and eastern borders of the plateau, and along the 
Tchernaya: these works varied much in strength and character, some- 
times consisting of continuous lines, again of detached redoubts. 

The redoubts generally had ditches about 10' wide and 6' deep. In 
many cases these works were only undertaken when a narrow escape from 
some imminent danger had demonstrated their necessity. 

The line in front of Kamiesch consisted of eight pentagonal redoubts, 
connected by an infantry parapet; it ran from Strelitzka bay nearly south to 
the sea, passing at a little more than a mile from the harbor of Kamiesch : 
it was never completely finished. 

The position of the Russians, after the evacuation of the south side, 
was one of exceeding strength : their establishments were covered by Fort 
Sivernaia, (a permanent work,) and long lines of strong earthen batteries, 
which would have required a siege to reduce them. 

The steep declivity of Mackenzie's heights, accessible at but a few 
points, all of which were strongly guarded, rendered the approach from 
the south a matter of extreme difficulty. It would appear that the allies 
were wise in refusing to attempt to force the passage, unless the effort had 
been made immediately after the fall of the Malakoff, before the Russians 
recovered from the shock. 

Efforts were made to turn the extreme Russian left by the valley of 
Baidar, but they only served to ascertain the hopelessness of the under- 
taking. 

The detached operations against Kinburn, Eupatoria, Kertch, the Sea of 
Azoff, &c., cannot be regarded as having produced any effect upon the gene- 
ral result of the war : they served chiefly to weaken the main body of the 
allies, to annoy and exasperate the Russians, to occupy the attention of 
some of their irregular troops, and to destroy more private than public 
property. 

The most accurate topographical map of the ground around Sebastopol, 
that I have seen, is one published at the hydi'Ographic office of the Admi- 
ralty, February 2, 1856, and entitled, " Sebastopol : showing the Russian 
defence works and the approaches of the allied armies; by Lieutenant 
George R. Wilkinson, R.N., under the direction of Captain T. Spratt, 
R.N. C.B., September 1, 1855." 

The permanent defences of the harbor of Sebastopol against an attack 
by water, although inferior in material and the details of construction to 
our own most recent works, proved fully equal to the purpose for which 

3 



34 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

they Avere intended. Indeed, the occurrences on the Pacific, the Baltic, 
and the Black Sea, all seem to establish, beyond controversy, the sound- 
ness of the view so long entertained by all intelligent military men, that 
■well-constructed fortifications must always prove more than a match for 
the strongest fleets. 

It is believed that a calm consideration of the events so hastily and 
imperfectly narrated in the preceding pages must lead all unprejudiced 
persons among our countrymen to a firm conviction on two vital points : 

1st. That our system of permanent coast defences is a wise and proper 
one, which ought to be completed and armed with the least possible 
delay. 

2d. That mere individual courage cannot sufiice to overcoiue the forces 
that would be brought against us were we involved in a European war, 
but that it must be rendered manageable by discipline, and directed by 
that consummate and mechanical military skill which can only be acquired 
by a course of education instituted for the special purpose, and by long 
habit. 

In the day of sailing-vessels the successful siege of Sebastopol would 
have been impossible. It is evident that the Russians did not appreciate 
the advantages afibrded by steamers, and were unprepared to sustain a siege. 

This same power of steam would enable European nations to disembark 
upon our shores even a larger force than that which finally encamped 
around Sebastopol. To resist such an attack, should it ever be made, our 
cities and harbors must be fortified, and those fortifications must be pro- 
vided with guns, ammunition, and instructed artillerists. To repel the 
advance of such an army into the interior, it is not enough to trust to 
the number of brave but undisciplined men that we can bring to bear 
against it. 

An invading army of 15,000 or 20,000 men could easily be crushed by 
the unremitting attacks of superior numbers; but when it comes to the 
case of more than 100,000 disciplined veterans, the very multitude 
brought to bear against them works its own destruction; because, if with- 
out discipline and instruction, they cannot be handled, and are in their 
own way. We cannot afford a Moscow campaign. 

Our regular army never can be, and, perhaps, never ought to be, large 
enough to provide for all the contingencies that may arise ; but it should 
be as large as its ordinary avocations in the defence of the frontier will 
justify ; the number of ofiicers and non-commissioned oflacers should be 
unusually large, to provide for a sudden increase ; and the greatest pos- 
sible care should be bestowed upon the instruction of the special arms of 
the artillery and engineer troops. 

The militia and volunteer system should be placed upon some tangible 
and eflFective basis, instructors furnished them from the regular army, 



THE CRIMEAN AVAR. 35 

and all possible means taken to spread sound military information among 
them. 

In the vicinity of our sea-coast fortifications it would be well to provide 
a sufl&cient number of volunteer companies with the means of instruction 
in heavy artillery; detailing officers of the regular artillery as instructors, 
who should at the same time be in charge of, and responsible for, the guns 
and material. 

In time of war, or when war is imminent, local companies of regular 
artillery might easily be enlisted for short terms of service, or for the war, 
in the sea-coast towns. The same thing might advantageously be carried 
into effect on a small scale, in time of peace. 



36 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



EUROPEAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 



THE RUSSIAN ENGINEER TROOPS, 

As has been stated previously, are organized in battalions of four 
companies each, a battalion being attached to each army corps. Each 
company consists of 1 first captain, 1 second captain, 1 lieutenant, 1 
second lieutenant, 1 ensign, 20 sergeants, 6 musicians, 230 corporals and 
privates. There are three classes of privates, with different rates of pay. 
No extra pay is allowed them for any kind of work. 

Forty men in each company carry a rifled carbine, the rest have the 
ordinary infantry musket; all carry tools of some kind. The general 
equipment, drill, &c., is as for the infantry. The drivers are not detailed 
from the companies, but are a distinct set of men. 

The officers of the sappers are distinct from those of the corps of en- 
gineers, and need not have passed through the engineer school, but may 
enter at once from any of the military schools. 

The engineer troops have charge of the bridge train. Their general 
duties are as in most other services, including the repairs of roads, &c. 

The use of armor in the trenches has been abandoned. The tools, 
pontons, wagons, &c., are made at the engineer arsenals of construction. 
In a siege, all the works, including the batteries, are made by the sappers. 

COMPANY AND BATTALION SCHOOLS. 

These are under the sujiervision of the junior field officer of the bat- 
talion ; the method of mutual instruction is pursued, and text-books are 
provided. 

In each company school the following branches are taught : 1, reading; 
2, writing; o, religion, i.e. the ten commandments, the creed, and the 
principal prayers ; 4, arithmetic, i.e. the four rules for single and de- 
nominate numbers ; 5, reading extracts from the School of the Recruit, 
with questions and answers. 

In the lower class of each battalion school the following subjects are 
taught : 1, in religion, the catechism and short extracts from the Scriptures ; 
2, the chief rules of grammar and parsing; 3, in arithmetic, the repetition 



EUROTEAN ENGINEER T ROOTS. 



3T 



of the four ground rules, fractions, proportion, raising to tlie second 
power, and extracting the square root; 4, in geometry, the drawing, 
nomenclature, and properties of figures; 5, writing. 

In the higher class of the battalion school the course is as follow^s : 1 
in the Russian language, the rest of the grammar, and writing from dic- 
tation ; 2, in arithmetic, simple, inverse, and double rule of three, with its 
application to examples, the extraction of the cube root; 3, algebra, as 
far as simple equations ; 4, geometry, with the calculation of plane sur- 
faces; 5, writing; 6, the drawing of the different objects relating to the 
duties of sappers, miners, and pontoniers; 7, in summer, the practical 
solution of simple geometrical problems by means of cords and stakes, 
execution of field works, saps, mines, &c., with the names of their differ- 
ent parts. 



MILITARY BRIDGES. 

The Birago equipage has been partially introduced, 
especially the trestles, but the Russian engineers seemed 
to prefer their own system of canvas pontons. 

I was informed that in the Hungarian campaign the ad- 
vantage was altogether on the side of the canvas pontons, 
and that, as a general thing, their bridge was thrown 
and the troops crossing before the Austrian Birago 
wagons could fairly come into position : it was also 
stated that when the roads were bad the Austrian train 
required ten horses for each wagon. 

The canvas pontons consist of two wooden side frames, 
connected by movable transoms, with a painted canvas 
coVer stretched over the bottom, ends, and sides. 

The annexed figure gives the shape and dimensions 
of one of the side frames, which are made of about 4" 
scantling. The bottom transoms have tenons at each 
end, which fit into mortises in the bottom sills of th6 
side frames ; the two top transoms are laid on the top 
pieces of the side frames about 2' from the ends, and are 
lashed to them. The boat is 5' 4" wide from out to 
out. 

The canvas cover is painted black on both sides ; it is 
10' 8" wide, 30' long in the middle, 23' 3" long along 
the edges. This cover is brought over the ends of the 
frame and lashed to the top transoms ; it is secured 
along the sides to the top string-pieces of the side frames 
Ijy small nails passing through eyelet-holes along the 
edges of the cloth. 



2'*" 




38 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

A plank is laid along the bottom for the pontoniers to stand on. The 
cables are attached to the top transoms. There are four balks for each 
boat, each balk being 23' 4" long, 5" deep, 4" wide ; the side rails are 
21' long, and of 3" scantling; four chesses are 12' 2" long, 1.5" thick, 
and 18.6" wide, the rest being of the same length and thickness, but only 
9.3" wide. The balks of adjacent bays are connected by iron bolts and 
keys. There are special supports for the hand-ropes. The Birago trestle 
and abutments are used with this train. The wagon is very simple; it 
has four wheels, a flat open bottom, with a stanchion about 3' high at 
each angle. In loading, the four broad chesses are laid on edge against 
the stanchions, two on each side, thus forming the sides of the wagon ; 
the narrow chesses are laid on the bottom, then the balks, side rails, 
ponton-frames, oars, &c., the anchor and cable on top of all. The canvas 
cover is rolled on a boat-hook and hung to the stanchions on the right- 
hand side of the wagon. 

To pass a siege train over this bridge, the boats are placed 8' apart, 
from centre to centre, and six balks are used instead of four. In other 
cases the distance between the centres of the supports varies from 11' 8" 
to 16' 7 J", according to the method of construction and the load to be 
crossed over. 

I saw a bridge of fifteen bays thrown over a lake, by cadets, in forty-five 
minutes. In this time the wagons were unloaded, the boats put together, 
&c. ; two of the bays were on Birago trestles, and two on Birago pontons. 

The canvas ponton, with its cover, complete, weighs 720 pounds. 

Floatation of each ponton, 13,428 pounds. 

Weight of flooring, &c., of one bay, 1,476 pounds. 

Other materials packed on each wagon vary from 144 to 378 pounds. 

Total load of each wagon, from 2,340 to 2,574 pounds. 

Weight of empty wagon, 1,206 pounds. 

The weights and dimensions given above are derived from the Russian 
Aide-Memoire of the Engineers, pp. 143 to 145. 

LEATHER PONTONS OF THE MOUNTED ENGINEER TROOPS. 

These are made of varnished leather, stretched over a wooden frame. 
The boats, or pontons, are 20' long; greatest width, 5' 7"; depth, 3'; 
weight, 972 pounds; floatation, when sunk to the depth of 2' 8", 5,760 
pounds. 

For each boat there are 8 balks, each 18' long and 4" square, and 
weighing 72 pounds. 

For each bay there are 12 chesses, each 12' long, 18^" wide, 2" thick, 
and weighing 101 pounds. 

Each ponton is carried on a wagon, together with 8 balks and some 
other materials. 



EUROPEAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 39 

On other wagons are carried the chesses for two bays and the remainder 
of the material. 

The weights of these wagons and their loads are as follows : 

Boat-wagon, empty 2,178 pounds. 

The boat 972 " 

8 balks 576 " 

Other materials 540 " 

Total 4,266 " 

Chess-wagon, empty 2,196 pounds. 

24 chesses 2,424 '- 

Other materials 270 " 

Total 4,890 " 

Each wagon is drawn by 6 horses. 

Each leather boat will transport 25 men, with their arms and accoutre- 
ments. 

A raft formed of two boats will transport one gun, or 6 horses. 

The foregoing account of this bridge is also derived from the Russian 
Aide-M6moire, (edition of 1848,) pp. 153 and 154. 

I had no opportunity of examining a train of this kind. 

Raft bridges are much employed and admirably handled by the Russians. 
There is a very fine one, with a draw, over the Vistula, at Modlin. 

FIELD WORKS. 

The normal dimensions of the different parts are as follows : 

DitcTi, not less than IO5' wide at top; from 6' to 9' deep; base of 
scarp and counterscarp, from i to J of the depth. 

Parapet, from 7' to 8' high; thickness against infantry, 4'; against 
artillery, from 9' to 14' ; interior slope, | ; exterior slope, f or f , accord- 
ing to the soil. 

Banquette, 3' to 4^' wide, 4' 4" below the interior crest. 

Berm, 1^' to 3' wide. 

Embrasures, V 9" wide at the throat ; exterior opening depends upon 
the thickness of the parapet and the desired field of fire; sole, 3' to 
3' 3" above the platform. 

Merlons, T to 8' high, I72' to 21' from axis to axis of the embrasures. 

Barbettes, 3' to 3' 3" below the interior crest, 17^' to 24' deep, 14' 
wide. 

Gun and howitzer platforms, 9' wide, \1\' to 21' long. 

Mortar platform, T wide, 7' to 9' long. 



40 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

A gun or howitzer platform consists of: 1st, a hurter, not less than 9' 
long X 6" square; it is bisected at right angles by the directrix; 2d, 3 
or 5 sleepers, (according to the soil,) not less than 6" square, and as long 
as the platform; the outside sleepers are bV apart from centre to centre, 
and are parallel to each other; 3d, flooring planks not less than 2" 
thick. 

A mortar platform consists of: 1st, 3 sleepers 8" square and as long 
as the platform ; 2d, flooring timbers 7' long and 8" thick. 

ARRANGEMENT OF THE WORKING PARTY ON A FIELD WORK. 

From four to five men are assigned every sis running feet of the ditch, 
according to the strength of the profile. In easy soil each of these 
parties has one pick or mattock, four shovels, and one earth-rammer; in 
difficult soil there should be two-thirds shovels and one-third picks; in 
very difficult soil, one-half shovels and one-half picks. 

The workmen are placed in four ranks, which are 6' apart ; the first 
rank in the ditch, near the counterscarp; the second at the middle of the 
ditch, opposite the intervals of the first rank; the third on the berm; 
the fourth on the parapet. 

The first rank carry their excavation to the depth of 3', from the 
counterscarp to the middle of the ditch, and throw the earth on the 
berm ; the second rank work from the middle of the ditch towards the 
scarp, throwing the earth on the berm and parapet; the third rank throw 
the loose earth from the berm towards the interior slope ; the fourth rank 
level the earth on the parapet, ram it, form the slopes, &c. If the ditch 
is more than lOi' wide, the first rank throw their earth towards the scarp, 
whence the second rank throw it on the berm. The scarp and counter- 
scarp are at first cut down in steps, being afterwards trimmed ofi" to the 
proper slopes. 

Any superfluous earth is formed into a glacis. 

In a ditch not more than 4' deep, in good soil, two men can in ten 
hours excavate and shovel off 343 cubic feet; in a ditch from 4' to 5 J' 
deep, one additional man is required to do the same work ; in a ditch 
more than 62' deep, four men, two of whom have barrows or baskets, are 
required to do the same work. The interior slope is always revetted with 
fascines or hurdles; in default of these, with sods. The exterior slope 
is revetted with fascines or hurdles only when the parapet is of sand. 

When the work is to stand for some time, the exterior slope and the 
counterscarp may be revetted with sods. 

Parties of seven sappers each are detailed to revet the interior slope ; 
the three oldest soldiers arrange the slope, the other four bring up the 
materials. Each party should revet 24 running feet, and is provided 
with one iron hammer, one bill-hook, and 1 handsaw. 



EUROPEAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 41 



sp:condary means of defence. 

Inundations should not be less- than 5' deep. 

Ghevaux-de-fnse. — Body of square timber, 9' long; the lances project 
5', are 1\" in diameter, and 9j" apart. 

Palisades. — Of round timber, 9i' to 10 J' long, 8" in diameter; point, 
1' long ; butts charred. They are placed at the foot of the scarp or coun- 
terscarp, or in the middle of the ditch. The trench to receive them is 
I2' wide and 2 J' deep. The palisades are from 2" to 3" apart. 

Stockades are double palisades, employed against light artillery. 

The military pits are from 5' to 6' deep, upper diameter 6', lower dia- 
meter IJ'; the stake from 4" to 5" in diameter, and projects 4 J' above 
the bottom of the pit. 

Praises, entanglements, abatis, caltrops, &c., are also employed. 

SIEGE MATERIALS, ETC. 

The usual mathematical and surveying instruments are provided. The 
tools are generally inferior in quality. 

Common fascine. — 6' or 12' long, 2' in circumference; withes from V 
to 2' apart. 

Battery fascine. — 18' to 21' long, 1' in diameter; withes 10" to 12" apart. 

tiap fagot. — 2^' long, 10" in diameter; central stake projects 6". 

The trestles of the fascine cradles are from 2\' to 3' apart; the stakes 
of which they are made are 5' to 6' long, diameter 3" to 4" at the butt ; 
points enter the ground 3' apart, and cross 3' above the ground. 

The brush for fascines is not more than 1" in diameter. A fascine 
party consists of six men : two for preparing the brush, one to prepare 
the withes, two to lay and choke the brush, one to remove the fascine 
when completed. Each party is provided with two bill-hooks, one 
hatchet, one measuring-rod, one cord to measure the circumference, and 
one choker. 

Gabion. — The sap gabion is 30" high, 24" in diameter, and has 9 
stakes; each stake 3^' long, and from IJ" to 2" in diameter. 

Battery gabion. — 4' high, 3' in diameter, 13 stakes. In all gabions the 
stakes should be 8' apart. 

A gabion party consists of three men, and is provided with one 
measuring-rod, two bill-hooks, and one hatchet. 

Sap roller. — 7¥ long, 4' in diameter, stuffed with wool or fascines, and 
closed at both ends by wattling. It has 17 stakes. 

The brush being cut for them, and it being only required to trim off 
the leaves and twigs and to wattle, a party of three men can in four hours 
finish three sap gabions, two battery gabions, or one-third of a sap roller. 

Hurdles are from 4' to 9' long ; stakes, from 4' to 7' long, 2" in dia- 



42 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

meter, and 1' apart. A party of three men can make 53 square feet of 
hurdles in four hours, the brush being ah-eady cut. 

Sand-hags.— 2.' long, 8" to 9" wide. 

Suih.—\^" long, 12" broad, from 5" to 6" thick. 

Average iceiglit of different saji materials. 

Pounds. 

Common fascine, 6j' long, 82" diameter SIJ 

Battery fascine, 20' long, 1' diameter 288 

Sap fagot 17 

Sap gabion 43 to 54 

Sap roller, empty 324 

Sap roller, stuifed with fascines 1,080 to 1,296 

Sand-bag, filled 36 to 40 

SIEGE OPERATIONS. 

Simjile trench. — In easy soil, that can be worked by the shovel alone, 
the men are placed 4' apart; Avhen the pick is required, 3' apart; in very 
difficult soil, 2' apart. The communications leading to the first parallel 
have the following profile : trench, 3' deep at the berm, 8' to 9' wide at 
bottom; parapet, 4' high and 9' thick at base. Thi.s should be com- 
pleted the first night. Next day the first parallel receives the following 
dimensions : parapet, 4' high, 16' thick at base; trench, 9' wide at bottom 
in the clear, 3' deep in front; two steps, revetted with fascines, against 
the berm slope, and one broad step on the reverse slope. 

As regards their appearance, when completed, saps are single, double, 
or covered ; with respect to the mode of execution, they axe fying or sloic. 

The single sap affords cover from one direction only; the double sap, 
on both sides ; the covered sap, on both sides and above ; the latter is . 
employed to give protection against a ricochet fire, or when descending a 
slope, or when following along the foot of a hill. 

In the flying sap the gabions are all placed and filled simultaneously ; 
in the slow sap the gabions are placed and filled one at a time. 

For each head of the slow sap 24 sappers are detailed and divided into 
4 reliefs ; there is one non-commissioned officer with each relief, and 1 
officer for every 2 reliefs. 

For each head of sap the following tools are necessary : 2 sap hooks, 9' 
long, as in annexed sketch : 



IS" 



EEZJ ""C " ^ 




EUROrE AN ENGINEER TROOPS. 43 

1 squai'e; 1 arm 1' long, the other 18", as a measure for the 1st sapper; 
3 measures for the 2d, Sd, and 4th sappers, respectively, 2', 2^', and 3' 
long- 4 hand-axes, to cut turf and roots; 4 picks, or mattocks, according 
to the soil ; 6 shovels ; 2 axes ; 1 tracing-cord ; 2 sap forks, each 5' long, 
as shown by the annexed sketch : 




1 seven-foot measure ; 2 handspikes, 7' long, 6" square ; 1 roller, 4' long, 
18" in circumference ; 1 block, 2' long, 6" square, as a fulcrum for the 
handspikes; 1 curved wooden mallet, of the shape and dimensions shown 
in the annexed figure, for driving down the crowning fascines, &c. : 

8" 




'<^ 4.^>. ^ 

For each head of sap the following materials are required : 1 



sap 



roller; sap gabions; sap fagots; fascines; stakes, 2 5' long, for fastening 
the fascines ; sand-bags. 

Each relief is relieved after filling 18 gabions, which should be accom- 
plished in 3 hours. 

The first sapper fills 3 gabions, and then becomes No. 6 ; No. 2 becomes 
No. 1, &c. The end of the sap roller is on the alignment of the exterior 
surface of the gabionade. The joint between the sap roller and the 
gabion in the course of being filled is not covered ; the next 12 joints 
are each covered by 2 sand-bags on end ; after that with sap ftigots. 

Temporary crowning fascines are not habitually used. 

Execution of the single sap. — The 1st sapper leaves a berm of 1'; his 
form is 18" deep, 1' wide at bottom; base of berm slope 1'; he works on 
his knees. The 2d sapper follows No. 1 at the distance of 3 gabions ; his 
form is 2' deep, 2' wide at bottom, berm slope %; he throws his earth 
over the gabionade, and works on his knees. The 3d and 4th sappers 
crown the gabions opposite their forms with one layer of 2 fascines, and 
then complete their respective forms, preserving the berm slope of | ; 
the form of No. 3 is 2 5' deep by 25' wide at bottom ; that of No. 4 is 3' 
deep and 3' wide at bottom. Each sapper follows at 3 gabions behind the 
one in front of him. In the mean time, Nos. 5 and 6 pass up the materials, 

/ 



44 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

place and secure with pickets the 2d layer of fascines, remove the sand- 
bags from the joints, and replace them by sap fagots. 

Nos. 2 and 3 manoeuvre the sap roller. 

Boyaux made by the single sap are 6' wide at bottom. 

Double sap. — This is 12' wide between the two rows of gabions. Its 
trench, when completed, is 10' wide at top, 6' at the bottom. The head 
is covered by two ordinary sap rollers, not united in any way, the joint 
being closed by sand-bags, or a wool-bag. If it is necessary to throw the 
sap rollers farther out than usual, the opening left between them may be 
covered by a short sap roller. 

The coccred saj). — In this, blindage frames are used, each consisting 
of two stanchions 101' long X 7" square, and of two cross pieces, the 
upper of which is 10" X 7", the lower 7" X 5". The frame is 4' wide 
from out to out, and TJ' high from out to out of the cross pieces. The 
stanchions project equally beyond both cross pieces, and have points 
9" long. The frames rest against the berm slope, having its inclination. 
Two cross beams, each 16' long and 10" X 7", rest on each top cross 
piece. Five longitudinal beams of a similar section are laid on the cross 
beams; on top of these two layers of fascines, and on top of them 3' of 
earth. The trench thus formed is 7' high in the clear and 6' wide at 
bottom. In pushing the sap from the crowning of the breach, the first 
sapper makes his form 3' deep and 2' wide at bottom ; each of the other 
sappers widens and deepens it 1'. 

MINES. 

Frames of grand galleries are 6' high and 3' wide in the clear. 

Frames of common galleries are 4J' high and 3' wide in the clear. 

Frames of branches are 2 2' high and 2' wide in the clear. 

All parts of the frames are 5" wide; the caps are from 5" to 9" deep, 
the sills from 3" to 5" deep. 

For branches, the width and depth are diminished 1". 

The frames of Dutch galleries are of 2" plank, and from 6" to 9" wide. 

Each party of miners consists of three non-commissioned officers and 
eighteen men, divided into three reliefs, each relief working six hours. 
In ordinary soil, where no unusual obstacle is encountered, each relief 
should drive from 3' to 4' in six hours. 

In defending any position by field works, the system pursued was to 
occupy the flanks and other important points of any given line by 
redoubts, lunettes closed or palisaded at the gorge, &c., afterwards con- 
necting them by continuous lines if time was afibrded, and the locality 
rendered it advisable. When circumstances were favorable, the command 
jf the works was usually from 9' to 12', or even more ; the parapets 16' 
to 20' thick. In the ditches of the works, which were leisurely con- 



EUROPEAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 45 

structed, palisades, fraizes, caponieres, block-houses, blinded batteries, &c., 
were freely and judiciously employed. In some cases all the slopes were 
revetted with sods. The embrasures varied much in size, according to 
the circumstances of the particular case ; the soles generally sodded, the 
cheeks revetted with sods, gabions, or fascines. Generally, every two 
guns had splinter-proof gabion traverses from two to three tiers in height, 
two to three gabions wide at bottom, and one at top ; no fascines between 
the tiers; the gabions vertical, with offsets. There were usually ban- 
quettes between the embrasures, which latter were provided with rope 
mantelets : the magazines generally of a pentagonal section, and covered 
with 12" timber, a layer of fascines, and 6' of earth; the cartridges 
placed on shelves. 

The works intended to act against shipping were provided with hot- 
shot furnaces, and heavy guns were employed. Whenever the field works 
were at all leisurely constructed, nothing could have been more perfect 
and creditable than their details. 

On many of the barbette water batteries, the following arrangement 
was used for aiming : The rear traverse circle was graduated to small 
fractions of degrees ; on the parapet was a small arc graduated pro- 
portionally ; a wooden slat about 3' long, and provided with an index 
traversed on this ai'c ; on top of the slat were two fine needle sights. It 
was only necessary to sight the sbip to be fired at with these needle sights, 
take the reading shown by the index, and then run the gun to the same 
reading on the rear traverse circle. 

THE PRUSSIAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 

They are called pioneers, and perform the duties of sappers, miners, 
and pontoniers. They are oflSicered by details from the corps of engineers, 
and are organized in divisions of two companies each. In time of war, a 
reserve or depot company is added to each division. There is a division 
for each of the nine army corps, and two independent companies for the 
Confederation fortresses of Mayence and Luxembourg. On the war foot- 
ing, the strength of each company is as follows : 

4 officers. 

1 orderly sergeant. 

1 ensign, (a non-commissioned officer in the line of promotion.) 

3 sergeants. 

9 master pioneers, (an intermediate grade of non-commissioned officer.) 

9 corporals. 
189 privates, including one hospital attendant. 

3 musicians. 

226 men, exclusive of officers, surgeons, and drivers. 



46 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

In peace, the strength is reduced to about one-half. .The drivers of 
the tool and ponton wagons are soldiers of the train, and are not taken 
from the companies. 

When the whole army is placed on the war footing, the strength of the 
pioneers is 7,743 men, exclusive of officers, surgeons, and drivers. All 
the pioneer material is made at the engineer arsenals. In the trenches 
armor is not used. Experiments have been made with helmets and 
cuirasses made of three thicknesses of bull's hide; the results are said to 
be satisfactory. The men carry tools in slings, never attached to the 
knapsack. They are armed with a light musket, having an ordinary 
bayonet. Pioneers are employed as overseers, clerks, master-workmen, 
&c., in the construction of permanent works. 

MILITARY BRIDGES. 

The Birago trestle has been definitively adopted, but somewhat dimi- 
nished in dimensions ; his sectional ponton only partially, if at all. I saw 
none in use or in store. 

The boats are of wood, and are 20' X 5' X ^i'- The balks are 18' 
X 5*" X 4"; chesses, 12' X 10" X !"• The anchors are of two sizes, 
the smaller weighing 80 lbs. 

The wagons are drawn by six horses, and weigh, loaded, from 4,800 to 
5,400 lbs. The balks and chesses are secured on the wagons by bolts; 
the boat is placed on top, bottom upwards; the cables, oars, anchors, &c., 
are placed under it. There are two oars and one boat-hook for each boat; 
buoys, sounding-poles, &c., are provided. A bridge train consists of 32 
boats, and requires for its transportation 34 boat-wagons, 5 store-wagons, 
1 travelling forge, 238 horses, and a company of the train, (drivers,) con- 
sisting of 1 officer, 6 non-commissioned officers, and 119 drivers. The 
company of the train is organized only when the troops are placed on th6 
war footing, since horses are provided only in that event. 

Each division of pioneers has 1 bridge train, constituted as above. In 
addition each division has also a light advanced guard trestle bridge train, 
which consists of 10 wagons, can follow all the movements of artillery, 
and most of those of the cavalry. 

Some of the officers spoke very highly of the Birago trestle, but stated 
that it did not answer well on a very boggy bottom. Nothing peculiar 
was observed in their manner of throwing and dismantling the bridge; it 
was well and rapidly done ; the formation of the various detachments is 
similar to our own system. 

SAPS. 

Gabions — 30" high, exterior diameter 20", 7 stakes, bound by 4 withes 
at one end and by 3 at the other. 



EUROPEAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 



47 



Sap fagots are used, but are generally replaced by saud-bags. Sand- 
bags 10" X 15" empty, 6" X 9" when filled. Temporary crowning fas- 
cines are not used. 

The sap rollers are of 2 concentric gabions, in the English style; the 
outer cylinder is 9' long, 3' 4" diameter at the centres of the stakes, and 
has 23 stakes ; the inner cylinder is 7' long, and 1' 9" in diameter. The 
space between the two cylinders is stuffed with fascines, and the ends 
closed by wooden circles of 2" stuiF. The picks and shovels are quite 
light ; the latter have straight handles. The usual handspikes, chocks, 
&c., are employed. 



The annexed sketch repre- 
sents the sap hook. 




The opposite figure shows the 
butt of the reverse sap hook. 



The annexed figure represents 
the butt of the berm sap hook, 
a chain being fastened to the 
ring and a hook to the end of 
the chain ; the hook is hooked 
to the wattling of the gabionade, 
and thus held secure. 




The annexed 
sketch represents 
the sap fork ; its 
vertical branch is 
unusually long ; 
the bar, attached 
by a pin to the 
handle, serves as 
a fulcrum in plac- 
ing the gabion. 



1 




® 




48 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

A brigade for the full sap is composed of 1 non-commissioned officer 
and 8 men ; the leading sapper fills 2 gabions before changing ; the man- 
ner of working, changing, &c., presents nothing peculiar. 

The centre of the sap roller is placed on the alignment of the interior 
slope of the gabionade. In the double sap the rollers are never fastened 
together ; the interval between them is covered by a short roller, or by a 
pile of sand-bags. 

In the full sap the berm is from 1' to 2', according to circumstances. 
No. 1 always keeps one filled gabion in advance of the head of his form. 

The forms of the sappers are as follows: No. 1, 18" X 18"; No. 2, 
24" X 24" ; No. 3, 30" X 30" ; No. 4, 36" X 36". Each sapper has a 
wooden measui-e of his form. In crowning the covered way the sap is 4' 
deep. 

At the head of the double sap there is a rod as long as the clear inter- 
val between the gabionades ; this passes through rings at the ends of two 
sticks, one of which is at the side of each 1st sapper, and is used to verify 
the positions of the gabions last placed. 

The hurdle, sod, and fascine revetments, military pits, palisades, hutSj 
(fee, are well executed, but present nothing novel. 

Mines. — The galleries and shafts are well and neatly executed. I ob- 
served but two peculiarities in regard to the galleries : first, instead of 
connecting the stanchions of adjacent frames by battens nailed to them, 
pieces of 3" scantling, as long as the clear interval between the frames, 
are driven in between them sideways and horizontally ; second, before 
driving the wedges between the ends of adjacent lengths of sheeting, a 
strip of board is driven in, edgewise, between the ends of the sheeting 
planks, at right angles to them. In the shafts the frames are supported 
from below. 

THE AUSTEIAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 

Their duty is confined to that of sappers and miners, and the construc- 
tion of permanent works. In a siege the batteries are built by the 
artillery. The construction of all kinds of bridges, and of field fortifica- 
tions, the repairs of roads, &c., are intrusted to the pioneers, a special 
corps belonging to the general staiF. 

The engineer troops receive, however, a certain amount of instruction in 
these duties, that they may be able to perform them in case of necessity. 
There are 12 battalions of engineer troops, of 4 companies each. A 
company consists of — 
1 captain. 
4 lieutenants. 
4 sergeants. 



EUEOPEAN ENGINEER TBOOPS. 49 

8 conductors, (an intermediate grade of non-commissioned oflicer.) 
16 corporals. 
32 lance corporals. 
148 privates. 

2 musicians. 

215— total. 

The officers are detailed from the corps of engineers. Each company 
is divided into four platoons, one of which is especially instructed as 
miners, the remaining three as sappers. 

They are armed with a rifled weapon, having a 26" barrel, and a bayonet 
19" long. 

Figures 1 and 2 show the uniform, accoutrements, manner of carrying 
picks and shovels, mode of packing the overcoat, &c. 

Fig. 3 shows the formation of a company of engineer troops, as well as 
the distribution of the various tools. In addition to the various tools 
mentioned in that plate, each man carries a little bag containing small 
tools, nails, &c. 

The composition of a brigade for the full sap is the same as in the 
French system. The most striking peculiarity in the Austrian system is 
their method of executing the full sap. 

Upon commencing his work. No. 1 finds his form 2i' wide and 1 J' deep 
for the width of one gabion from the head, in rear of that it is 3' deep ; 
at the point where the form of No. 3 begins the trench is 3' wide. A 
mantelet is often used on the berm to cover the 5 leading gabions, in rear 
of the sap fagots. No. 1 places a gabion, and fills it with the earth 
obtained by cutting away the step at the head of his form, assisted by No. 
2, who throws into the gabion some of the loose earth he finds in his form. 
The gabion being filled. No. 1 continues his work until he has not only 
cut away the step at the head of his form, but has excavated another just 
like it, extending to 2' from the sap roller ; after he has filled the gabion, 
he passes back the loosened earth to No. 2, who throws it over the gabion- 
ade, always taking care to leave some loose earth to assist in filling tht 
next gabion placed. No. 3 carries the sap to the full width ; No. 4 places 
the sap fagots, &c. ; No. 1 is relieved after having filled one gabion and 
completed the excavation just described; his task usually occupies 20 
minutes. Temporary crowning fascines are sometimes used. The sap 
roller consists of a single cylinder, stuffed with fascines. 

THE AUSTRIAN PIONEERS. 

As has already been stated, this corps is attached to the general staff', 
and constructs all military bridges, field works, roads, &c. ; detachments 



50 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



Fig. 1. 
Austrian engineer soldier. 




EUROPEAN ENGINEER TROOPS. 



51 



Fig. 2. 
Austrian engineer soldier. 




52 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

from it assist in makiug surveys. The officers are distinct from those of 
the general staff, and are promoted in the arm. 

There are 6 battalions, of 4 companies each. A company consists of: 

1 captain. 

4 lieutenants. 

2 sergeants. 
20 corporals. 

40 carpenters, (20 of the 1st and 20 of the 2d class.) 
160 pioneers, (40 of the 1st and 120 of the 2d class.) 
2 musicians. 

"229— total. 

The company is divided into 4 platoons, — their arms, accoutrements, 
and mode of carrying tools being precisely like those of the engineer 
troops. Figures 1 and 2 will give all the requisite information. 

Fig. 4 shows the formation of a company and the distribution of the 
tools. In addition to the tools, &c., mentioned in the figure, 3,000 nails 
and various small tools are divided among the luen ; the maximum load 
of any one man is 452- pounds, every thing included. 

The Birago equipage is exclusively used, and has undergone no modifi- 
cation, except that the sections of the boats are connected by bolts and 
keys in addition to the hooks on the sides. 

Experiments are now being made to substitute boiler-iron boats for 
those of wood ; it was stated that they were of about the same weight 
as the wooden ones, and that they would probably be adopted. I ob- 
served a number of them at Klosterneuberg. All the bridge materials, 
and most of the pioneer tools, are made by the men of the corps, the 
principal arsenal of construction being at Klosterneuberg, near Vienna. 

Each company has two bridge equipages ; an equipage consisting of the 
pontons, trestles, &c., necessary to form a bridge 174' long; 15 wagons 
transport this amount of material, and they are so packed that the 
equipage may be divided into I, 1, and i. 

The composition, details, and properties of the Birago bridge are so 
well known to all interested in the subject, through Haillot's excellent 
description of it, and Birago's "Examination of the European Systems 
of Military Bridges," that it is altogether unnecessary to describe it here. 

For the pioneers, as well as for the engineer troops, there are special 
tactics for the infantry drill of the recruit, company, and battalion drills. 

All the details of the Austrian system of the field duties of the pioneers, 
such as field fortifications, labors in camp, repairing roads, making bridges, 
&c., will be found in an excellent work entitled, "Technical Pioneer- 
Service in the Field, by Captain Wasserthal;" or, in the original, 
'^ Technischer Pionier-Dicnst im Felde, von Konstantin Wasserthal, K. K. 



53 

Fig. 3. — Company 

■I \M'lj\'0\a\co\a,\a\cL\a\a.\a\a\a \aJ\a\ • | -'1 3131 T)\a\a\ d/L\a,\a\a\o^a.\ a,\aU. 
I \i\'b\b\i\l\b\h\l\c\c\c'^':A^V^'^ \fA/Ab\h\h\b\ b \b\o\c\a\n\'Q[^ < 

\'\ \7m7i\k\i\i\i\7i\ffy\nr't'\(Ad.\ ! \k\M/c\7o\7.\i. \i\h\</\ff\f\f\7\7Tc 



[III] 



Fig. 4.— Comi 



\n \n\a.\ii,\a\(i\(b\ri\a\a\f/\a\a.\a-\a\a\K\W,f-)\S\'k\a\a\a\n\a\a\n\ri a\n.'a rt\a\a\i 



\c\c\c\c\c\c\c\c\b\b'-b\b\byfy\h\'6\h-\ \W\ \n\c\c\c\c' (}\('\h\l>\ ht l,\b\l>\ 
\ll\i \t\ t i l\ i\h'k .i/^(/\ing\(!\/'\e e'd\d^20 . \l\i\i\L '^.h'h\g\g\{j'g a\l-'\e \e\d\i 

^ Captain. □ ^"""^ 

B 1st lieutenant. E] ^orp 

Aj 2d lieutenant. Q Musi 

la 1st sub-lieutenant. !«J Pick; 

■■ 2d sub-lieutenant, \b\ Sbovi 

[Tl Sergeant. [?] Spad( 



54 

ler troops (Austrian.) 



\}>\f>\lj\fv\n\ a]a^a\ro\(t\ct\a\n\co\(v\ • 


! •{?? \h\b\n\fi\ro\ (i\ n\eo\a\ co\ n\ (u\ o\ a/\ H 




\'b\h\i\i\i\(>\'b\'h\c\c\c\c\o\e\c\ 


\l\'h\l\L\b\b\l\Mc\c\c\c\c\n\c\ \ 


\k\k\k\7i\ i I i 1 i \k\ff\ff\f\r\e\ e\rl\ 


\ \k\'k\k\k\i\i\i\k\.g\fi\r\r\e\e\d\ \'\ 



F>] 



neers, (Austrian.) 



a\a\a\a\a.\ay\(t\ci\cL\ a.\ a\a\ a\ a\ a] 'k\H\ -/-\2 \ k\cv\a.\ a\a,\a\a.\a\a']a. a\a\a\a\a \a \a \jz 



c\c\c\c\c\c\c\c\'b\b\bVb\h\d\h\ h\ \k\c\c\c\c\r\o\c.\c\i\b\b\b\b\6\b\F\ 



ii/lH t\h.\lL\g \ff\ff\9\9 \F\e\e\fl\(Ll.^, \i\L i i\L\i\h\Mff\ff\ff\ff\!/\f\e\e\(l\I\i3\T\ 



\o\3 

\d[ Axe. 

[7] Auger. 

[7^ Pincers. 

[^ Clanip-iron-carriers. 

r^ Saw-carricr.s. 

\i\ Men with two shovels. 

r^ Jlcn without ti>()ls. 



EUROPEAN ENGINEER TROOPS. I 

Pionier, Hauptmann, etc. ; Wien, Verlag von Carl Gerold und Solin- 
1852." 



THE FRENCH AND ENGLISH ENGINEER TROOPS. 

Our own system of instruction being based upon the French and 
English, their organization and system are so perfectly well known in our 
serAnce that any description of them may be dispensed with. It is be- 
lieved that no essential changes have been introduced of late. 

In the course of the observations made upon the operations near Sebas- 
topol there arises the necessity of alluding to the manner in which these 
systems were carried into practice, as well as the temporary modifications 
rendered necessary by circumstances. 

In concluding this brief account of the engineer troops of different 
European services, there are a few points to which I would ask to call the 
attention of our own officers of engineers. 

In regard to the saps : there are several things which ought at least to 
be tried. Among them may be mentioned the Russian system of reducing 
the number of men in a brigade to 6 ; the Austrian method of executing 
the sap ; the Russian curved mallet for fastening the crowning fascines ; 
the Prussian sap hooks and sap fork ; the system of leaving the two sap 
rollers at the head of the double sap unconnected, and covering the 
interval by a third roller or by sand-bags ; the use of sand-bags, instead 
of sap fagots, for covering the joints at the head of the sap, and the 
Austrian manner of carrying tools. 

In reference to bridges : I would recommend that the Birago trestle, in 
principle, at least, be definitively adopted as a part of our system. Its 
universal adoption on the continent of Europe, after careful trial, would 
appear to be sufficient evidence that its theoretical advantages are fully 
obtained in practice. On the march from Matamoras to Victoria and 
Tampico, in 184G and 1847, we had very great difficulty in bridging boggy 
streams (there being no suitable timber) and in crossing ravines with 
vertical banks : a few bays of the Birago trestles would have saved us 
many days and a vast amount of labor. In the operations in the valley 
of jMexico, our movements, checked as they so often were by impassable 
wet ditches and sometimes by dry ravines, would have been rendered so 
much more free and rapid by the use of the Birago trestles that our 
successes could have been gained at far less cost, and probably with even 
more rapidity, than they were. 

With respect to the boats: fully appreciating the great advantages 
arising from the lightness of our India-rubber pontons, I have never felt 
satisfied that they could afford, in practice, the advantages expected of 
them. The material deteriorates and becomes worthless very rapidly, — 



no THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

probably the inevitable result of the process of manufacture. It is at 
least doubtful whether, even in new pontons, the manner of attaching the 
cable aiFords sufficient strength, should a heavy load cross the bridge, 
when thrown over a wide and rapid stream. The pontons are not fit to be 
used as boats in ferrying troops over rapid streams, especially under fire. 

In attaching the frame to the ponton, the loops soon give way, and 
cannot be repaired in the field. 

The bridge has never been fairly tested; that is, it has never been 
thrown across any stream, much less a rapid one, and a heavy load passed 
over it. 

I would therefore suggest that the equipage ought not to be exclusively 
relied upon in the field until it has been tested by taking it to some place 
where it can be thrown over a rapid stream, at least 100 yards wide, and 
the heaviest loads passed over, and where, too, its capacity, in the form 
of single boats and rafts, can be fully tried. I would at the same time 
suggest the propriety of experimenting with sectional boats, after the 
manner of the Birago boats, but made of the corrugated iron. 

Our force of artillery is large in proportion to the other arms of service, 
while the number of our engineer troops is ridiculously and shamefully 
small: it is, therefore, more than probable that in any future siege it will 
be easy for the artillery to construct their own batteries, while the en- 
gineers will be sufficiently burdened by the construction of the other 
works of attack. We have now, at last, the germ of an artillery school of 
pi-actice : I would then suggest, for the consideration of the War Depart- 
ment, the propriety of causing the artillery to construct their own batteries. 
The position and armament of siege batteries should be determined by 
consultation between the engineers and artillery, the former having the 
preponderating voice, in order to secure the necessary harmony and con- 
nection between all parts of the works of attack. 

I would recommend that the result of the experience of the engineer 
company be reduced to form, and that a full and detailed system for the 
construction of material, saps, mines, field works, bridges, construction 
of field ovens, repairs of roads, &c., be adopted and published for the 
benefit of the service. 

If the artillery be charged with the construction of batteries, there 
should also be adopted and published for their use an artillery manual, 
comprising every thing in relation to the preparation of the fascines, 
gabions, platforms, and magazines, the dimensions of batteries, manner 
of arranging working parties, &c. 



THE FRENCH INFANTRY. 57 



FRENCH, AUSTRIAN, PRUSSIAN, AND SARDINIAN 

INFANTRY. 



THE FRENCH INFANTRY. 



The infantry of the French army is divided into several classes : 
1st. The infantry of the imperial guard; 2d. The infantry of the line; 
3d. The battalions of foot rifles, (chasseurs d jned, — formerly d' Orleans, 
or de Vincennes;) 4th. The zouaves; 5th. The light infantry of Africa; 
6th. The foreign legions; 7th. The native (xlfrican) light infantry. 

The infantry of the guard is organized in two divisions, each of two 
brigades. 

1st division, 1st brigade: 1 regiment of gendarmes, 2 battalions; the 
1st regiment of grenadiers, 4 battalions; the regiment of zouaves, 2 bat- 
talions. 

2d brigade : the 2d regiment of grenadiers, 4 battalions ; the 3d regi- 
ment of grenadiers, 4 battalions. Total of 1st division, 16 battalions. 

2d division, 1st brigade: the 1st regiment of voltigeurs, 4 battalions; 
the 2d regiment of voltigeurs, 4 battalions; the battalion of foot rifles. 

2d brigade : the 3d regiment of voltigeurs, 4 battalions; the 4th regi- 
ment of voltigeurs, 4 battalions. Total of 2d division, 17 battalions. 
Total infantry of the imperial guard, 33 battalions. 

The battalions of gendarmes, grenadiers, and voltigeurs have 6 com- 
panies ; the battalions of zouaves 7 companies, of which 1 is a depot com- 
pany; the battalion of foot rifles has 10 companies. 

The infantry of the line consists of 102 regiments, each of 3 battalions; 
the battalion has 8 companies. 

There are 20 battalions of foot rifles; 10 companies in a battalion. 

There are 3 regiments of zouaves, each of 3 battalions; the battalion of 
9 companies, 1 of which is a depot company. 

The light infantry of Africa consists of 3 battalions, each of 7 com- 
panies, 1 of which is a depot company. 

There are 2 foreign legions, each legion of 2 regiments, the regiments 
having 3 battalions of 8 companies ; to the 2d legion is attached, in 
addition, a rifle battalion of 10 companies. 



08 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



The native ligld mfantry consists of 1 regiment of 2 battalions, having 
8 companies each, and of 6 independent battalions, varying from 3 to 8 
companies each. 

The staff of a regiment of 3 battalions consists of: 1 colonel; 1 lieu- 
tenant-colonel; 3 chiefs of battalion; 1 major; 4 adjutants, with the rank 
of captain, (capitaine adjutant major ;^ 1 treasurer, with the rank of captain, 
{capitaine trisorier f) 1 captain of clothing, (jxipitaine cVhahilleinent ;') 
1 assistant treasurer, a sub-lieutenant ; 1 standard-bearer, a sub-lieutenant ; 
3 surgeons. 

To the staff of a regiment of 4 battalions 1 chief of battalion is added. 
On the staff of a regiment of 2 battalions there are but 2 chiefs of bat- 
talion and 2 adjutants. 

To the staff of many of the regiments a lieutenant of the general staff 
{etat-inajoi-) is attached, for his instruction in the service of the arm. 

The staff of an independent battalion, such as those of the foot rifles, &c., 
consists of: 1 chief of battalion; 1 captain major, a captain doing the 
duty of major; 1 captain adjutant; 1 captain, as instructor of firing; 

1 lieutenant, acting as treasurer; 1 lieutenant, acting as clothing officer; 

2 surgeons. 

The non-commissioned staff of a regiment of 3 battalions consists of: 

3 non-commissioned adjutants, (sergeant majors;) 1 drum major, or chief 
bugler; 3 "corporal drummers," or buglers; 1 corporal of pioneers; 
12 pioneers; 1 band-master; 1 corporal of musicians; 25 musicians. 

For an independent battalion the non-commissioned staff consists of: 
1 non-commissioned adjutant, 1 chief bugler, 1 corporal of buglers. 

In each regiment there is a ^'company out of ranks," composed of 
mechanics, &c. ; attached to each independent battalion, a " section out 
of ranks." 



SERGEANTS. 

First sergeant 

Wagon-master, with the rank of 1st sergeant. 

Clerks of the treasurer 

In charge of clothing magazine 

Fencing-master 

Masters armorer, tailor, and shoemaker 

CORPORALS. 

Clerk of treasurer 

Quartermaster of the staff 

Clerks of officers of clothing and armament. . 

Hospital steward 

Conductor of the train 



Reg't. 



Batt'n. 



THE FRENCH INFANTRY. 



59 



PRIVATES. 

Armorer, (1,) tailors and shoemakers 

Clerk of commanding officer 

Clerk of lieutenant-colonel 

Clerks of treasurer and assistant treasurer 

Clerks of clothing officer 

Armorers 

Tailors, varying with the strength of the corps 

"Shoemakers, varying with the strength of the corps 

Muleteers 

Enfant de troupe 

Total of company or section out of ranks 



Reg't. 


Batt'n. 


5 




1 


1 


1 




o 




1 


1 


2 


2 


27 


18 


23 


15 




2 


1 




77 


48 



Witli the exception of the foot rifles, a company consists of: 1 captain, 
1 lieutenant, 1 sub-lieutenant, 1 orderly sergeant, 4 sergeants, 1 quarter- 
master sergeant, 8 corporals, 96 privates, (the number of privates varies 
somewhat according to circumstances,) 2 musicians, 2 pupils in music, 
1 enfant de troupe. In the foot rifles there are : an additional sergeant as 
instructor of firing, 4 buglers, no pupils in music, and from 100 to 130 
privates. 

The light infantry are formed in two ranks, the heavy infantry in three 
ranks. 

The depot system appears to vary. In time of peace, one of the bat- 
talions may be used as a depot; in war, either additional companies are 
added to each battalion, or an additional battalion created for the purpose. 

The duties of the colonel are about as in our service. 

The lieutenant-colonel is in charge of all the order-books. 

The chiefs of battalion are directly responsible to the colonel for the 
instruction, discipline, service, dress, condition of the arms, messing, 
quarters, &c., of their respective battalions. 

It is the special duty of the major to examine and countersign all 
requisitions for arms, clothing, subsistence, fuel, &c. 

The duties of the captain adjutants in their respective battalions cor- 
respond very nearly with those of our regimental adjutants. 

The tactics of the French infantry have not been changed since they 
were adopted in our service. But little attention is paid to the individual 
<' setting up" of the men; consequently, they present rather a slouching 
appearance. An exception to this rule is found in the 6lite corps, for 
which men with a good natural bearing are selected. Much irregularity 
is tolerated in marching, it being only required that the guides preserve 



60 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

their distances with great exactness. In the movements of large columns 
it is very rare to see any mistakes in this matter. The men are allowed 
the utmost ease and latitude in ranks. Some essential parts of the French 
instruction have been omitted in our own, such as the system of gymnas- 
tics, natation, &c. 

The smooth-bore musket is still in general use for the infantry of the 
line; the light infantry and elite corps have rifled arms. All buglers 
carry a rifle; the drummers have none. The infantry sabre is regarded 
by the men as a useless encumbrance: they are probably the best judges. 

The grenadiers and voltigeurs of the guard have the old-fashion cross 
belts, without waist-belt; all other troops have only a waist-belt, the 
bayonet-scabbard, cartridge-box, &c., being attached to it. 

The knapsack is of the pattern in possession of the Department. It is 
small and of cowskin, with the hair left on. The shoulder-straps pass 
straight over the shoulders, and hook to brass loops on the waist-belt. 
Another strap is fastened to the under surface of the knapsack near each 
outer corner, and buttons to the shoulder-strap a little above the armpit. 

When the overcoat is not worn, it is rolled in a long roll, and strapped 
on top and on the two sides of the knapsack. The shelter tent is car^ 
ried in the same manner, under the overcoat, if both are attached to 
the knapsack. 

The shelter tent and manner of using it are described in connection 
with the French cavalry. The supporting sticks are in two parts, the 
pointed end having a sheet-iron socket into which the upper part fits. 
Each man carries one piece of the tent, one stick, and two or three small 
tent-pins. 

The infantry rations are the same as for the cavalry; so also their cook- 
ing-utensils. In the infantry, each mess generally consists of 14 men, and 
has 2 gamelles, 1 lidon, 1 marmite, sometimes a stewpan in addition. 
The men of the mess take turns in carrying these, attaching them to the 
knapsack, or in any other manner they find most convenient. The knap- 
sacks are never carried in the wagons. 



The annexed sketch shows the form and dimensions of 
the canteen. It is of tin, covered with cloth, suspended 
by a cord. 



The rations are generally carried in the knapsack. 
The uniform of the infantry of the line is too well known to require 
description. In the Crimea, they wore the overcoat, with epaulettes, and 




THE FRENCH INFANTRY. 61 

the forage cap; a jacket in camp. The frock-coats and shakos were left 
in France. 

The grenadiers and voltigeurs of the guard have the uniform of the 
imperial guard of the first empire, except that pants are substituted for 
the old knee-breeches. 

The foot rifles of the guard wear a jacket with long skirts, and very- 
loose pants, which are tucked under leather gaitei's extending to the top 
of the calf of the leg. 

The infantry of the line, rifles, &c., wore a light-blue merino scarf, in 
lieu of a stock, in the Crimea. 

The dress of the zouave is of the Arab pattern ; the cap is a loose fez, 
or skull-cap, of scarlet felt, with a tassel ; a turban is worn over this in 
full dress; a cloth vest and loose jacket, which leave the neck unencum- 
bered by collar, stock, or cravat, cover the upper portion of his body, and 
allow free movement of the arms ; the scarlet pants are of the loose Orien- 
tal pattern, and are tucked under gaiters like those of the foot rifles of the 
guard; the overcoat is a loose cloak, with a hood; the chasseurs wear a 
similar one. The men say that this dress is the most convenient possible, 
aod prefer it to any other. 

The zouaves are all French; they are selected from among the old 
campaigners for their fine physique and tried courage, and have certainly 
proved that they are what their appearance would indicate, — the most 
reckless, self-reliant, and complete infantry that Europe can produce. 

With his graceful dress, soldierly bearing, and vigilant attitude, the 
zouave at an outpost is the beau-ideal of a soldier. 

They neglect no opportunity of adding to their personal comforts : if 
there is a stream in the vicinity, the party marching on picket is sure to be 
amply supplied with fishing-rods, &c.; if any thing is to be had, the zouaves 
are quite certain to obtain it. 

Their movements are the lightest and most graceful I have ever seen ; 
the stride is long, but the foot seems scarcely to touch the ground, and 
the march is apparently made without efibrt or fatigue. 

The step of the foot rifles is shorter and quicker, and not so easy and 
graceful. 

The impression produced by the appearance of the rifles and of the 
zouaves is very diff'erent : the rifles look like active, energetic little fellows, 
who would find their best field as skirmishers ; but the zouaves have, com- 
bined with all the activity and energy of the others, that solid ensemhk and 
reckless dare-devil individuality which would render them aUke formidable 
when attacking in mass, or in defending a position in the most desperate 
hand-to-hand encounter. Of all the troops that I have ever seen, I should 
esteem it the greatest honor to assist in defeating the zouaves. The 
grenadiers of the guard are all large men, and a fine-looking, soldierly set. 



62 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

Tho voltigeurs are small, active men, but larger than the rifles; they 
are light infantry. 

The appearance of the infantry of the line is by no means impressive; 
it requires close watching to appreciate their excellent qualities. 

The regulations for the government of troops in the field are strictly 
carried into practice, and appear to work well : the only complaint 
appeared to be that the number of returns and accounts required was so 
great that it was impossible to make them out in time; the consequence 
was stated to be that most officers were very much behindhand with their 
accounts. 

The regiments with the shelter tents generally bivouacked in line. 

In the field portable ovens of sheet iron are frequently used. These, 
with all the necessary utensils, are packed in boxes which may be trans- 
ported either on mules or in wagons ; each division is provided with a set 
of these, which require from 2 to 3 wagons for their transportation. With 
the stone and earth usually to be found at the camp, these ovens cau be 
set up and put in working order in 24 hours. 

In the Crimea bread was baked in permanent ovens established at 
Kamiesch. Coflfee was usually sent to the Crimea green, and roasted there 
by the men, each mess having a coffee-mill. The cakes of biscuit are f" 
thick, about 3 to a ration ; they are put up in boxes containing 100 rations, 
which pack well in the subsistence-wagon, or can be carried on mules. 
The exterior dimensions of these boxes are 31i" X 18^' X 131". The 
biscuit is dried 15 days before being packed, is packed tight, and will keep 
for many years. 

The system of fencing with the bayonet, which is in general use in the 
French army, does not differ materially from our own ; a gutta-percha 
bayonet, with a button, is used. The System of Gymnastics (edition of 
1847) gives the full details of all the materials necessary, and excellent 
plates illustrating the various exercises. 

The system of instruction in natation, by the chief of battalion d'Argy, 
is simple and excellent. 

There is a gymnastic school, near Vincennes, to which one sergeant or 
corporal is sent from every i-egiment and independent battalion. They 
remain six months at the school, the best pupils being retained six 
months longer as assistant instructors. 

The course consists of gymnastics, scaling walls, swimming, fencing 
with the bayonet, singing, dancing, reading, writing, &c. 

The agility and skill exhibited by the pupils were really wonderful. 

The efficiency of the French infantry is in no small degree attributable 
to the great attention paid to these points throughout the army. 

Shortly before our visit to the gymnastic school, a series of experiments 
had been carried on there, by authority of the minister of war, in a system 



THE AUSTRIAN INFANTRY. 63 

of field telegraphing, the invention of Mr. Swaim, an American. The 
object is to communicate orders and intelligence, as far as the eye can 
reach, by means of combinations of simple objects, such as a cap or coat on 
the point of a bayonet, &c. It was stated by the officers that the system 
worked admirably and was of value. It would be worth the while of our 
government to inquire into the matter. 

At Vincennes there is a school of firing for officers of infantry. A lieu- 
tenant or sub-lieutenant is sent here every year from every regiment or 
independent battalion of infantry. 

The course is of four months, and comprises the theory and practice of 
target-firing, full instruction as to the construction, use, and preservation 
of fire-arms, preparation of cartridges, &c. 

In a lesson in aiming, given by the chief of battalion Minie, the gist of 
his instructions was this : Always press the butt against the shoulder • in 
aiming at a near object, (without the hausse,) raise the shoulder, in order 
to bring the low sight up to the level of the eye; in aiming at a distant 
object, (with the high hausse,) lower the shoulder, so as to bring the top 
of the hausse on a level with the eye. 

The barracks generally allow sufficient space, but are not well arranged 
for the quietness of the men. 

The bunks usually con.sist of boards supported by iron trestles ; some- 
times of iron bedsteads. 

The police of the quarters is not generally good ; but the habits of the 
nation are not remarkable for neatness. 

In the field, as well as in quarters, the officers bestow the utmost care 
upon the comfort and well-being of the men, rightly regarding that as 
probably the most essential element to insure efficiency, contentment, 
and willing obedience. This example cannot be too strongly urged for 
imitation. 

THE AUSTRIAN INFANTRY. 

This consists of 62 regiments of the line, 14 regiments of frontier 
infantry, and 32 battalions of rifles. 

During peace, the line regiments consist of 4 field battalions of 6 
companies each, and 1 depot battalion of 4 companies. In war, the 4 
grenadier companies are detached from their respective battalions and 
form a separate battalion, being replaced in the field battalions by new 
companies. 

The frontier regiments have 2 field and 1 depot battalion. 

Of the rifle battalions, 26 consist of 4 companies, the remainder of 6 
companies each ; each of the latter has a depot company, while there is 1 
depot company for every two of the 4 company battalions. 

A grenadier company consists of: 1 captain, 1 lieutenant, 2 sub-lieu- 



64 THE ARMIES OF EUROrE. 

tenants, 2 sergeants, 12 corporals, 150 privates, 2 drummers, and 2 
pioneers. 

The other inftmtry companies consist of: 1 captain, 1 lieutenant, 2 sub- 
lieutenants, 2 sergeants, 12 corporals, 12 lance corporals, 180 to 200 
privates, 2 buglers, 2 drummers, and 2 pioneers. 

A rifle company consists of: 4 officers, 2 sergeants, 12 corporals, 20 
lance corporals, 160 privates, 2 buglers, and 2 pioneers. 

The company is divided into 4 platoons, and the formation is always in 
3 ranks. 

The step is 30" long, and at the rate of from 105 to 108 per minute. 

The school of the recruit comprises the individual, squad, and platoon 
drills, in close order, and as skirmishers ; it contains full instructions as 
to running, jumping, &c., detailed instructions in regard to target-practice 
and the theory of firing, and a full system for fencing with the bayonet. 

In the skirmish drill the chain is composed of groups of three men; the 
rear rank, or a part of it, being habitually employed as skirmishers. 

In the formation of a company in line, the captain is three paces in 
rear of the centre ; if the company is alone, he is at half-company dis- 
tance in front of the centre ; the 1st lieutenant is on the right of the 
front rank; the 2d lieutenant on the left of the front rank; the 3d lieu- 
tenant by the side of the captain, when the latter is in rear of the com- 
pany; the sergeants are in the front rank, between the second and third 
platoons; four corporals are posted as file-closers behind the centres of 
the wings of the company, the other's on the flanks of platoons ; the 
drummers and pioneers are six paces in rear of the centre; the buglers 
of an infantry company are on the right and left of the centre rank. 

In a rifle company, the pioneers take the place just prescribed for the 
buglers of an infantry company, and the four buglers are posted six paces 
behind the centre of the company. 

The field officers of a regiment consist of one colonel commanding, and 
one field officer (a lieutenant-colonel or a major) to command each battalion. 
There are a regimental adjutant (a lieutenant) and a battalion adjutant (a 
sub-lieutenant) for each battalion. 

Each battalion has its own colors. 

The interval between battalions is twelve paces. 

The column by companies is the habitual column of manoeuvre; it is 
formed with full distance, in close column, (three paces clear distance 
between the subdivisions,) and closed in mass, (without distance between 
the subdivisions.) In the manoeuvres of large bodies of troops the two 
latter are most frequently employed. 

The Austrian system of forming square, and the constant illustrations 
given in their tactics of the adaptation of principles to the ground, are 
worthy of study, and, to some extent, of imitation. 



THE AUSTRIAN INFANTRY. (]5 

It may be remarked of the Austrian, as well as of most of the European, 
infantry, that men are allowed to swing the arm freely, and that the piece 
is much more frequently carried at a slop.e than at a carry. 

The rifles habitually carry their pieces slung on the right shoulder, 
(not across the back,) the rifle behind the shoulder, and vertical, the sling- 
passing in front, and grasped by the right hand. This appears to be the 
most convenient and least fatiguing manner of carrying it. 

Under the new system all small arms are rifled, and have a uniform 
calibre and lock ; the calibre is about the same as that of our own new- 
model rifled musket. 

The barrel of the infantry musket is 37 2" inches long, has four shallow 
grooves, and a charge of 55 grains. 

The men of the rear rank have a hausse for longer distances than those 
of the front and centre ranks ; in other respects the weapons are the 
same; the bayonet has four grooves; the barrel of the rifle is 28 inches 
long ; the rear rank of the rifles carry a " tige rifle ;" the rifle has a sword 
bayonet; the I'ammer is separate from the rifle, has a wooden handle, and 
is attached to the shoulder-belt. Thin white cross belts are used, without 
a waist-belt; in the rifles the belts are black. The cartridge-box con- 
tains four packages of six rounds each, and the cleaniug-utensils; six 
additional packages are carried in the knapsack. The Tyrolese rifles use 
the powder-horn. Non-commissioned oificers of infantry, and all the 
grenadiers, wear infentry sabres. 

In each company 16 hatchets are carried in a leather case attached to 
the bayonet-scabbard belt. 

Drums of brass, 12 inches high and 16 inches in diameter. 

The bugle is, more properly speaking, a clarion. 

No fifes are used. 

Musicians have a sabre, but no fire-arms. 

The pioneers carry a saw, axe, and hatchet, in the same manner as the 
engineer troops. 

The officers have a light sabre. 

The knapsack is of cowskin, with the hair left on; it is 12 inches 
square, and 42- inches thick. No breast-strap is used for the knapsack; 
the two shoulder-straps are attached to the middle of the top of the 
knapsack, pass over the shoulder and under the arm to the outer ends of 
the bottom of the knapsack ; fastened on the left side by a buckle, on the 
right by a ring and hook. 

The infantry shako, cut of the uniform, belts, &c., are shown in the 
figures accompanying the description of the Austrian engineer troops. 
The shako is of black felt, with leather top and visor; large brass eagle 
in front; wooden pompon, trimmed with brass; a black water-proof cover 



s 



66 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

goes over the shako and visor; when this is put on, the pompon and 
eagle are removed, and put inside the shako in the top lining. 

The forage cap is of light-blue cloth, of the gig-top shape ; it has no 
visor, but U\o flaps of cloth, (which can be turned up,) serving as ear- 
covers in cold weather, and which may serve as substitutes for a visor. 
The men are all provided with mittens of blue cloth. 

The frock-coat is of excellent thick white cloth ; the buttons white 
and plain ; coat lined with thick linen ; facings and cuffs different for 
different regiments. 

This white coat always looks well, and the officers prefer it to any other 
color, stating that it is very easy to keep it clean in the field, by washing 
and pipe-clay. 

The men usually wear a vest, made of an old coat. 

The pants are of light-blue cloth, with a white cord; always have 
pockets. The pants of the Hungarian and Croat infantry fit perfectly 
tight to the legs. 

Gaiters of black cloth. 

The shoes come well up on the ankle; the men put nails and iron heels 
upon them. 

The stock black, with a white edge on top; it has a bottom flap. 

The overcoat is of gray cloth, with a large rolling collar; it is made 
quite loose. All guards in garrison are provided with special overcoats 
for the sentinels. 

The coat and pants of the rifles are of a bluish gray, cut like those of 
the inftmtry; but, instead of the shoulder-strap, there is placed at the 
point of the shoulder a raised crescent-shaped pad of cloth. 

Their hat is of felt, turned up on both sides, and has a large black 
plume of cocks' feathers. 

The overcoat is folded in a long roll, and strapped to the top and 
both sides of the knapsack. Extra shoes are tied to the sides of the 
knapsack. ^ 

The uniform coat is always carried in the field; no extra pants carried. 

The forage cap is carried in a small pocket on the front of the knapsack. 

The contents of the knapsack are: 1 pair of drawers, 1 shirt, 1 hand- 
kerchief, 1 pair of feet-wrappers, (socks not being used,) and the usual 
brushes, cleaning-utensils, &c. 

The clothing is issued to the captains either made up, but not trimmed, 
or else in the form of cloth, as they may elect. The system is explained 
in describing the Austrian cavalry. 

The distinctive marks of rank are as in the cavalry. It may be repeateu 
that no epaulettes are worn by the infantry; even the officers are without 
them. 

The rations and cooking-utensils are as for the cavalry; the kettle is, 



THE AUSTRIAN INFANTRY. 67 

however, for a mess of 14 men, and they ai-e carried either in wagons or 
on pack-horses. 

Each man has a " little gamelle," like those of the French, which is 
attached to the knapsack. Bread is carried either under the flap of the 
knapsack or in a linen haversack. 12 tin canteens are carried in each 
platoon. 

Tents are not used in the field, the men being expected to construct 
such temporary shelters as the material at hand renders possible; in camps 
of instruction tents are provided. The men carry no blanket in the field, 
— merely the overcoat. 

In quarters the bedsteads are single, and of iron; each man has a bed- 
sack, pillow, two blankets, and a pair of coarse sheets; all these belong to 
the barracks, and are in charge of the captain inspector. The bedsacks 
are filled every three months. During the day the bedsacks are kept 
d^wn, but the blankets, &c., are folded at the head of the bed. Each 
man has a rack and shelf at the head of his bed. The rooms are gene- 
rally dirty and filled with tobacco-smoke; those of the Polish companies 
were the cleanest. The men eat in their rooms. The arms and accoutre- 
ments are kept in the corridors. A part of the officers live in the barracks. 

PROPRIETORS OF REGIMENTS, PROMOTION, MARRIAGE, INVALIDS, ETC. 

The "proprietor" of a regiment confers his name upon it, receives about 
^150 per month, and nominates the officers up to the grade of captain, in- 
clusive. He is obliged to follow the ordinary rules of appointment and 
promotion, but decides as to the application of those rules. Promotion 
always goes by seniority, provided the senior is fit for his new duties; it 
is in the regiment up to the grade of colonel, after that in the whole army. 
The senior captains and field officers are sometimes transferred to other 
regiments in order to equalize promotion. Colonels rank in the whole 
army by seniority, irrespective of corps, and are promoted according to 
seniority, if competent; if not, they are retired. 

An officer who is retired after five years receives a certain pension ; after 
ten years' service, a greater one; and so on for every additional five years. 

Any one under the grade of general, who retires after thirty years' 
service, receives the full pay of his grade; a general who retires after fifty 
years' service receives full pay. 

The various medals, decorations, &c., carry with them a certain salary, 
which is continued during the life of the recipient, even should he leave 
the service, and is given to his widow during her life; there is no other 
pension than this for soldiers. 

There are several invalid-asylums in the empire, each lor a fixed number 

of officers and men; the officers are furnished with quarters, fuel, and 

attendance. AVhen a vacancy occurs, the oldest soldier entitled to be 

5 



68 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

retired receives the place; if a soldier is disabled by wounds, &c., he must 
return to his friends and await his turn for the asylum. 

Retired and disabled soldiers receive the preference in all government 
employments, such as on railways, as orderlies in public offices, in the 
service of the posts, &c. 

Eight years is the term of service for all arms. The men are drawn 
by conscription, only-sons being exempted. In 1855 and 1856 the author- 
ized price for a substitute was about $300. A man who re-enlists, after 
eight years' service, may demand his discharge at any time. 

Men sent home upon a reduction of the army are liable to be recalled 
at any time until their eight years are out; the time thus spent at home 
counts in the eight years, but they receive no pay while absent from 
their regiments. 

As a general rule, the men are not permitted to marry; but a certain 
number of laundresses are allowed each company. Under no pretext can 
more than one-sixth of the officers of any regiment or special corps be 
married. When any officer desires to marry, he makes an application, 
and receives permission in his turn when the first vacancy occurs, irre- 
spective of rank. Before he is permitted to marry, an officer must de- 
posit in the hands of the government a certain sum, difi"erent for the 
various grades and corps. He receives the legal interest of this money 
every month. 

Privates are placed on courts-martial for the trial of their peers. Not 
more than 100 blows can be given; the usual manner of inflicting them 
is on the seat, the pants being kept on. Flogging is rarely resorted to, 
and only with hardened characters and for heinous ofiences. For deser- 
tion, the penalty is flogging for the 1st and 2d offences, death for the 3d. 
An officer on detachment has great powers in regard to the infliction, of 
punishment. 

As far as possible, especially in time of war, off"ences are tried and 
punished within 24 hours of the arrest of the off"ender. Duty on courts- 
martial is a matter of regular detail, according to the roster. 

The money for the pay, &c., of the men is drawn by the captain; he 
issues the ration-money every day to the first sergeant, the balance every 
five days. The first sergeant turns over the ration-money for each squad to 
its corporal, who makes the purchases ; in doing this, he is always accom- 
panied by one or two men selected by the squad. 

The captain makes out the requisition for the money; this is examined 
and approved by the ''war commissary," whose signature constitutes the 
order upon the military chest for the payment to the captain. The 
captain draws the pay of the officers on the same requisition. The com- 
missary, who gives the order, never has charge of the money, his only 
duty being to examine and verify the accounts. 



THE PRUSSIAN INFANTRY. 69 

When a man is in the hospital his pay ceases, and he is struck off the 
company pay-roll, being supplied with food by the hospital. 

Since the affairs of 1848 and 1849, the organization and instruction of 
the Austrian infantry, as well as that of the other arms of service, have 
been much improved. In the nest war in which they are engaged tho 
beneficial effect will no doubt be perceived. The rifles are a fine set of 
men, and will probably hold their own against any similar troops with 
whom they may be brought in contact. 

THE PRUSSIAN INFANTRY. 

The general organization of the regular army and the landwelir, tho 
term of service, &c., are explained in the report upon the Prussian cavalry. 
The infantry consists of: 

(a) The standing army — 

Battalions. 

4 regiments of guards 12 

1 reserve regiment of the guards 2 

2 battalions of rifles of the guards 2 

32 regiments of infantry of the line 96 

8 regiments of reserve infantry 16 

8 combined reserve battalions 8 

8 battalions of rifles 8 

144 

(i) The landwehr of the 1st levy — 

4 landwehr regiments of the guard 12 

32 provincial landwehr regiments 96 

8 landwehr battalions of the reserve regiments 8 

116 116 

(c) Same for landwehr of 2d levy 116 

376 

In time of war the following is the general division of the infantry : 

A. INFANTRY DISPOSABLE FOR ACTIVE OPERATIONS IN THE FIELD. 

(1) The guards— 

4 regiments of infantry of the guard 12 

1 reserve regiment of the guards 2 

2 battalions of rifles of the guards 2 

(2) Infantry of the line — 

32 regiments of infantry of the line 96 



70 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

8 regiments of reserve infantry, combined with their 8 battalions 

of the landwehr, forming 8 regiments of o battalions each... 24 
8 battalions of rifles 8 

144 
(3) Landwehr of the 1st levy — 

4 guard and 32 provincial regiments 108 

Total disposable for field operations 252 

B. DEPOT TROOPS. 

(1) For each infantry brigade of 6 battalions, (formed by the 

union of a regiment of the standing army with the corre- 
sponding regiment of landwehr,) there is a depot battalion 
of 6 companies, (1 company for each battalion ;) the com- 
bined reserve battalions form the nucleus of these depot 
battalions 36 

(2) 10 depot companies for the 10 rifle battalions 2i 

Total depot battalions 38J 

(c) Landwehr of the 2d levy 116 

Total battalions in time of war 406^ 

On the war footing each battalion numbers 1,002 men, exclusive of 
officers and the train. 

In time of peace the strength of each company is as follows : 1 captain, 
1 first lieutenant, 3 second lieutenants, 1 orderly sergeant, 1 ensign, 3 
sergeants, 12 corporals, 10 lance corporals, 4 musicians, and 125 privates. 
In war the number of privates is increased to 219; making the strength 
of the company 250, exclusive of officers, and that of the battalion 1,002, 
including the drum major and battalion clerk. 

For each battalion there are : one field officer in command, who is a lieu- 
tenant-colonel or major, a battalion adjutant, with the rank of second 
lieutenant, and two supernumerary captains. 

On the regimental stafi" there are : 1 colonel, 1 regimental adjutant, 1 
regimental surgeon, sometimes a supernumerary field officer, and 1 regi- 
mental clerk. 

In addition, each battalion has 1 treasurer, 2 or 3 surgeons, and 1 
armorer. 

The regimental bands of the guards consist of 48 men; those of the 
regiments of the line, of only 10 men. 

In time of peace the organization of army corps is according to pro- 
vinces. 



THE PRUSSIAN INFANTRY. 71 

In war the active army forms 9 army corps, viz. : 1 of the guards and 
8 of the line. 

The corresponding regiments of the line and the first levy of the land- 
wehr are brigaded together, i.n. the 8th regiment of the line and the 8th 
regiment of landwehr form 1 brigade of 6 battalions. 

An army corps, on the war establishment, consists of: 2 infantry divi- 
sions, 1 cavalry division, the reserve artillery, and a division of pioneers. 

(a) Each infantry division consists of 2 infantry brigades, 1 regiment 
of cavalry, and 2 foot batteries. A battalion of rifles is attached to one 
of the divisions. 

(Jj) The cavalry division consists of 6 regiments of cavalry and 2 bat- 
teries of horse artillery. Four regiments of cavalry of the line and four 
regiments of landwehr cavalry compose the cavalry of an army corps. 
Special cavalry corps are formed only in case of necessity. 

(c) The reserve artillery consists of 4 foot batteries and 1 horse bat- 
tery; this is commanded by a field ofi&cer. 

{d) A division of pioneers, generally with at least one ponton train, is 
attached to each army corps. 

The order of battle of an active army corps is as follows : 

Advanced guard. — One infantry brigade, (6 battalions,) 1 cavalry regi- 
ment, and 8 guns. 

Main hody. — One infantry division, (12 battalions,) 1 cavalry regi- 
ment, and 21 guns. 

Resf-rvf:. — One infantry brigade, (6 battalions,) 1 rifle battalion, and 8 
guns; the cavalry division, (24 squadrons,) the reserve artillery, 6 bat> 
teries, (48 guns,) the pioneer division. 

Total of an army corps : Men. 

25 battalions 25,000 

32 squadrons 4,800 

88 guns 2,000 

1 division of pioneers 500 

32,300 



The nine army corps consist of 226 battalions, 228 squadrons, 792 
guns, and about 4,500 of the technical troops. 

The military staff" of an active army corps consists of: 

(o') The general commanding. General staff": 1 general as chief, 1 
field officer, 1 captain. Aides-de-camp : 1 captain of infantry, 1 captain 
of cavalry, 2 lieutenants. Engineers : 1 field officer and 1 captain. 

(h) Two generals commanding the infantry divisions, one general 
commanding the cavalry division, general staff: in each division, 1 



72 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

field officer, or 1 captain. Aides-de-camp : in each infantry division, 1 
captain of infantry and 1 lieutenant; in each cavalry division, 1 captain 
of cavalry and 1 lieutenant. 

(c) Four brigadier-generals of infantry, two brigadier-generals of 
cavalry. 

Each general of brigade has 1 lieutenant as aide-de-camp. 

A permanent guard for head-quarters is detailed from the reserve 
squadrons and battalions of the landwehr, and consists of 1 officer, 5 
non-commissioned officers, and 37 privates of cavalry, 10 non-commis- 
sioned officers and 42 privates of infantry. 

The administration of an active army corps consists of: 

(a) The intendancy, comprising the intendancy of the corps, and, 
under it, one section of the intendancy for each division, and one for 
the artillery reserve. 

(6) The military chest of the corps, with four 6-horse wagons. 

(c) The Commissariat officers, consisting of 1 chief commissary and 1 
commissary for each of the 3 divisions and the reserve artillery, as well 
as 1 in charge of the bakeries. 

(J) The provision trains, organized as a battalion, and comprising: 1. 
The staff of the train battalion, with one 2-horse wagon. 2. Five pro- 
vision columns, consisting of five 6-horse wagons and one hundred and 
fifty-five 4-horse wagons. 3. A field bakery column, with five 4-horse 
wagons. 4. A horse depot with seventy-five spare horses, and a 2-horse 
wagon for papers. 

(e) The field hospital, consisting of : 1. A main field hospital for 1,200 
invalids. 2. Three flying hospitals, each for 200 invalids. 

(/) The military post-office, consisting of: 1. One postmaster. 2. A 
post-office for each of the three divisions and the artillery reserve. 

Total number of wagons of the administration from a to/ — 

9 6-horse wagons. 

204 4-horse wagons. 

41 2-horse wagons. 

Total 254 wagons. 

((/) The chief surgeon of the corps. 

(K) The judge advocate's department, consisting of: 1. A judge advo- 
cate for the corps. 2. Six judges advocate of division, i.e. one for each 
infantry brigade, one for the cavalry division, and one for the artillery 
reserve. 

(i) Seven chaplains, i.e. one for each infantry brigade, one for the 
cavalry division, one for the artillery reserve, and one for tho hospitals. 



THE PRUSSIAN INFANTRY. 73 

The allowance for tlie transportation of baggage, &c., is as follows : 
A. A battalion of infantry is provided with — 

1. One i-horse wagon for officers' haggage. 

Pounds. 

(a) Adjutant's desk 40 

(b) Mess-chest of field officers 40 

(6) 22 officers' portmanteaus, at 61 pounds, and 1 at 102 pounds.. 1,444 

{d) Armorer's tools 225 

(e) Surgeon's baggage and instruments 60 

Total weight 1,809 

2. One 4:-horse equipment loagon. 

(a) Money-chest 306 

(6) Treasurer's books, &c 40 

(c) Spare articles of equipment, shoemakers' and tailors' tools, &c. 1,305 
(<^) Surgeon's baggage and instruments 60 

Total weight 1,711 

3. One 2-horse medicine cart. 

(a) Surgeon's baggage, i.e. 60 pounds for portmanteau of the 

battalion surgeon, and 40 pounds for medical books 100 

(6) Chests of medicines, bandages, &c 257 

Total weight , 357 

4. Four company pack-animals, each carrying — 

(a) Mess-chest of company officers 60 

(i) Blankets for sick men 45 

(c) Overcoats of the four lieutenants 18J 

(d) Baggage of the orderly sergeant 20 

(e) Money, &c., when on detachment 50 

Total load of each animal IQSJ 

The captains carry their overcoats on their own horses. 

The normal load of a 4-horse wagon is 1,836 

The normal load of a 2-horse wagon is 816 

The normal load of a pack-animal is 204 

Exclusive of cleaning-utensils, forage, &c. 



74' THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

B. A battalion of rifles is provided witli — i 

One 2-horse equipment wagon. 

Money-chest 306 

Treasurer's books, &c 40 

Adjutant's desk 40 

Officers' portmanteaus 225 

Armorer's tools 180 

Total weight 791 

One 2-horse medicine cart, as for the infantry battalions. 

Each company has 4 pack-animals, on which it packs — 

Officers' mess-chest 60 

Officers' portmanteaus 310 

Spare equipments, &c 250 

Blankets for sick men 45 

Overcoats of officers 18 J 

Baggage of orderly sergeant 20 

Baggage of surgeons, hospital attendants, &c 60 

Total load of the 4 pack-animals of a company 763^ 

Tactics, instruction, &c. — The rifles are formed in 2 ranks, all other 
infantry in 3 ranks. The largest men are in the front rank, the most 
active men and best shots in the third rank ; these men being habitually 
employed as skirmishers. The distance between the ranks is 2', mea- 
sured from the back of the front rank to the breast of the next rank. 
The company is divided into 2 platoons; platoons of 20 files and upwards 
into half platoons ; the latter into sections. Platoons of less than 20 files 
are divided only into sections. The section consists of not more than 6 
nor less than 4 files. In a detached company the officers, &c., are posted 
as follows : the captain at one-third platoon distance in front of the 
centre; the 1st lieutenant commands the 2d platoon, and is posted on its 
right in the front rank; the senior 2d lieutenant commands the 1st pla- 
toon, and is posted on its right in the front rank ; the next 2d lieutenant 
is on the left of the 2d platoon, in the front rank; the junior 2d lieu- 
tenant is 4 paces in rear of the centre of the 1st platoon ; the orderly ser- 
geant is in the rank of file-closers, (2 paces behind the rear rank,) in rear 
of the 2d file from the right of the company ; the right guides of the pla- 
toons are in the rear rank; the left guides in the rank of file-closers, 
behind the 2d files from the left of their platoons; the remainder of the 
non-commissioned officers are at equal intervals in the rank of file-closers ; 
the field music, 12 paces in rear of the centre of the company, except on 



THE PRUSSIAN INFANTRY. ' 75 

parade, when they are 2 paces from the right of the company, on the 
alignment of the centre rank. 

In a battalion the platoons are numbered from 1 to 8, in a regular 
series from right to left. 

The color-guard, consisting of the color-bearer, who is a non-commis- 
sioned officer, and 5 color-corporals, is posted between the 4th and 5th 
platoons. 

The commander of the battalion, with a musician, is posted at com- 
pany distance in front of the centre; the adjutant, 12 paces in rear of the 
centre. 

Each captain commands the 1st platoon of his own company, and is 
posted in the front i-ank on its right; the 1st lieutenants are posted as 
explained for a detached company ; the 2d lieutenant of the 4th company 
is on the left of the front rank of the battalion; all the other 2d lieu- 
tenants are in the rank of commissioned file-closers, (4 paces behind the 
rear rank,) in rear of their respective platoons ; the non-commissioned 
officers are posted as prescribed for a detached company. 

All the field music of the battalion is united, and posted 4 paces on the 
left of the adjutant; the band is 4 paces on his right. On parade, all 
the music is on the right of the battalion. The length of step is 29"; 
the rate of march, 108 steps per minute, except in the bayonet charge, 
when it is 120. The march is steady, but strikes one as being stiif and 
awkward ; for the foot is raised very high, the toe much pointed, the 
knee much stiffened, and the foot brought down with a shock ; the noise 
thus made by a column is something quite extraordinary. 

The manual of arms presents nothing peculiar beyond the fact of 
bayonets never being unfixed, and the method of loading the needle gun. 
The piece is very generally carried at a slope arras, or a sergeant's carry. 

The minimum of target-practice is, that each man must fire one shot 
every week ; but this minimum is far exceeded. 

The individual carriage and instruction of the Prussian infantry are 
excellent. 

The formation into " company columns" — i.e. forming a third platoon 
of the men of the third rank, for skLi-mishing and light infantry service — 
is employed, and does not differ in any essential particular from the 
system explained in the report upon the Russian infantry. 

The chain of skirmishers consists of pairs of men. The system is full 
and good, but presents nothing peculiar. 

The movements of a battalion, its formation in column, &c., are habi- 
tually by platoon. 

The battalion advancing in line, at the command " prepare to charge," 
the battalion at once takes the gait of 120 steps per minute, the colors 
fall back into the front rank, the commander rides to the rear; at 12 



76 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

paces from the enemy he gives the command "charge bayonets — charge/' 
on which the front and centre ranks bring down their pieces, and all 
charge with the '' hurrah." 

In the close column the distance between subdivisions is 4', measured 
from the front rank of one subdivision to the rear rank of the one next in 
front of it. 

The double column on the centre platoons is the column of attack, and 
the habitual column of manoeuvre. In this the distances are as in close 
column, except that two paces clear distance is left between the second 
and third subdivisions ; the music is in this distance. 

Square is formed from the double column on the centre. At the com- 
mand " form square," the 3d and 6th platoons close up to 2' from the 
4th and 5th, the 1st and 8th do the same with regard to the 2d and 
7th ; the 4 rear platoons face about ; the color-bearer retires to the 
centre of the square ; the three outer flank files of the 2d, 3d, 6th, and 
7th platoons face outwards, these short sides of the square being com- 
pleted by officers, non-commissioned officers, and men of the rear rank of 
the central platoons, formed 3 deep; in the same manner the intervals 
between the 4th and 5th, the 1st and 8th, platoons are filled. If either of 
the short sides is attacked, then the 3 flank files of the head and rear of 
the square, on that side, face in that direction. 

The square being formed, the command " square — ready !" is given ; 
upon this the front-rank men of all the faces charge bayonets, the 2d and 
3d ranks come to a ready. 

The firing is usually by volleys, of one rank at a time ; no rank fires 
without the special order of the commander. 

The interval between consecutive battalions is 20 paces. 

A brigade is formed in two or more lines, the usual distance being 150 
paces. 

It is worthy of remark that the Prussian Infantry Tactics, from the 
school of the recruit to that of the brigade, inclusive, form only one small 
volume of 228 pages. 

ARMS AND ACCOUTREMENTS. 

All the regiments of the guards, and at least one battalion of every 
regiment of the line, are armed with the "needle gun," (ziindnadel- 
gurche;) the rest of the infantry of the line have the percussion musket; 
the rifles of the guard have a "needle rifle," (ziindnadelbuchsen ;) the 
rifles of the line have the tige rifle. 

The needle gun is rifled, and loads at the breech. An aperture exists 
in the upjjer surface of the barrel, near the breech ; this is opened and 
the cartridge slipped in horizontally. In the cartridge, near the base ol 
the ball, there, is a pellet of fulminating powder ; behind the cartridge 



THE PRUSSIAN INFANTRY. 77 

there is a long sharp needle in the axis of the barrel ; this is connected 
with a spiral spring. Upon pulling the trigger the spring is liberated, 
and drives the needle through the cartridge into the fulminating com- 
pound. 

The target-practice with the needle gun is carried up to 1,000 paces, 
and seven shots per minute can be fired. 

There is no other belt than a waist-belt; to this the sabre and cartridge 
boxes are attached. There is no bayonet-scabbard, the bayonet never 
being unfixed, except in the case of the rifles, who have a sword bayonet. 

The cartridge-boxes hold 20 rounds each, and are 6" X 3" X ^" j in 
the field each man carries two, in front of the body, and on each side of 
the belt-plate ; in garrison but one is carried, and that in front of the 
middle of the body. The cap-pouch is on the front of the box, under 
the flap. Two tin boxes, (2-|" X 1" X i"j) each containing forty caps, 
are carried in the knapsack. 

In each company one man carries on his waist-belt two boxes (6 J" X 
4" X 3") containing medicines in vials ; this man carries no musket, and 
is under the direction of the surgeon. Patterns of these boxes were ob- 
tained by the commission, and are in possession of the War Department. 
Each soldier carries a small supply of lint in his knapsack. 

The knapsack is of cowskin, and as shown in the preceding figures. 

The overcoat is either strapped to the top and sides of the knapsack, 
a& explained for the Austrian infantry, or is rolled in its full length, the 
ends fastened together by a strap, and the whole thrown over one shoulder, 
crossing the back, and passing under the other arm. 

Of the four musicians, two are drummers and two fifers ; each fifer has 
also a bugle. 

The drums are 18" in diameter and 4" deep, — including the rims, C 
deep. Each drummer has a leather apron on his left thigh. 

UNIFORM. 

The uniform of the ofiicers difi"ers but little from that of the Russians, 
except in color. 

The helmet is worn by all the infantry, except the rifles, whose heaa- 
dress is like that of the Austrian rifles. The frock-coat is universally 
worn ; for the infantry it is dark blue, for the rifles green ; the distinc- 
tions of army corps, regiments, grade, &c., are found on the collars and 
cuflfs ; the sword-knot is also a distinction of grade, and of companies in 
the same battalion. The overcoat is of dark gray, without cape, and with 
a standing collar. The shoulder-straps on the frock-coats and overcoats 
of the men are of the Russian pattern. 

The material of the clothing is very good, and it is well made up. 
Each man has a pair of cloth mittens and a pair of ear-covers. 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE 



J'ruHsidii. Kii(ij)S(ic/c 




The hooks hook to the inside belt. G is an iron pin, by means of which the shoulder- 
straps may be lencthened or shortened. A B is the camp-kettle. 



THE PRUSSIAN INFANTRY. 



79 



Prussian Knapsack. 





80 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

The contents of the knapsack are : 1 pair of cloth pants, 1 overcoat, 1 
forage cap, 1 pair of shoes, 1 pair of extra soles, 1 shirt, 1 pair of drawers, 
brushes, shaving-materials, and 20 rounds of cartridges; weight of the 
whole about 20 pounds. The whole load of the men, including arms, 
accoutrements, ammunition, &c., &c., is somewhat less than 60 pounds. 
All other essential points in relation to the clothing are given in the 
report upon the Prussian cavalry. 

RATIONS. 

The rations, cooking-utensils, &c., are the same as in the cavalry. The 
bread used by infantry and cavalry alike in this service is the brown or 
" black" rye bread of Grermany. 

The haversacks are of linen, and are 12" square ; no canteen is car- 
ried ; instead of it, a small flask of brandy in the haversack. 

QUARTERS. 

In quarters the men are divided into squads of from 18 to 20 men, 
each under a corporal. 

As a general rule, each squad has two rooms, in one of which all the 
beds are stowed during the day, the other being used for eating, reading, 
lounging, smoking, &c. This room is provided with tables and benches ; 
at night some of the beds are placed in this second room. 

The bedsteads are single and of iron, put together with nuts and 
screws ; the tops of the corner posts are hollowed out, so that the feet of 
another bedstead may be set in them in the daytime, thus placing one 
above another to save space. 

The bottom or floor of the bed consists of boards, placed longitudinally 
on the cross-pieces ; an inclined board at the head of the bed renders a 
thin pillow sufficient. 

The bedding consists of a pillow, bedsack stuQ'ed with straw, and a 
pair of blankets in a check case ; the bedding is not folded up during the 
day. The bedding belongs to the barrack. Each man has a cupboard, 
with a lock and key, in which he keeps his rations and eff"ects. 

In the room is a list of the men quartered there, with the name of the 
orderly; also an inventory of all public property in the quarters. 

On the outside of the door, which is numbered, is a board or paper, 
inscribed, e.g., as follows : — 

2d battalion. 

10th infantry regiment. 

8th company. 

5th squad. 

The inspector of each barrack is a retired non-commissioned officer ; he 
is responsible for the furniture, bedding, &c., of the officers and men 



THE PRUSSIAN INFANTRY. 81 

liviug in that barrack, and reports to the inspector of the post, who is a 
retired officer; the hitter is under the orders of the intendant. Tables, 
sofas, chairs, bureaus, bedsteads, and bedding, are furnished to every 
officer ; they paper their own quarters, and paint them if the ordinary 
government allowance is not sufficient. 

FIELD SERVICE. 

The organization of an army corps in the field, and its allowance of 
transportation, have already been given. 

Each captain of infantry is allowed a horse j he is only permitted to 
ride on the march ; no lieutenant is, under any circumstances, permitted 
to ride. 

The ordinary march is 14 miles in five hours, sometimes 23 i miles in 
eight hours. Usually a short halt is made about fifteen minutes after 
starting, and in the middle of the march a halt of about an hour ■ if the 
march is a very long one, (more than 20 miles, for instance,) two halts 
of an hour each are made. On the march the piece is carried at will, on 
either shoulder. No tents or shelter tents are used ; the men hut them- 
selves as best they can. 

The normal camp of a regiment is in six rows of huts, perpendicular 
to the front of the camp; two companies being in each row, and there 
being one street for each battalion. 

Each platoon has its stacks of arms at the head of its row of huts ; the 
huts of the officers are in the middle of those of the men of their com- 
panies, in the same row. 

The latrines are in rear of the whole camp. 

The bivouac is essentially the same as the Russian. 

In regard to the landwehr, it is worthy of mention, that in the land- 
wehr arsenals complete sets of clothing, arms, and accoutrements are kept 
on hand, so that a few minutes will suffice to supply the men, who are 
already drilled. A close study of the landwehr system is well worthy of 
the attention of our own officers ; the adoption of some similar system 
would go far towards rendering our own country unassailable. 

1 desire to call the attention of our officers to the rich and interest- 
ing field of study offered by the Prussian military works ; any one who 
will provide our service and the country with such valuable aids as 
"Witzleben, Minis, Kalkstein, Scharnhorst," &c., will at least have the 
satisfaction of knowing that he has conferred incalculable benefit upon 
the service. 



82 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

THE SARDINIAN INFANTRY. 

This consists of 20 regiments of infantry and 10 battalions of ber- 
saglieri, (rifles.) 

Each regiment of infantry has 4 battalions, of 4 companies each ; the 
staff of a regiment consists of 1 colonel, 4 majors, 2 adjutants, 1 pay- 
master, 1 clothing ofiicei', 1 chaplain, 3 surgeons, 2 staff quartermasters, 
1 drum major, 1 quartermaster, and 3 sergeants of the train; 3 corporals, 
4 battalion clerks, 3 battalion drummers, 1 chief trumpeter, 1 master 
carpenter, 1 band-master, 2 armorers, 1 master tailor, 1 master shoe- 
maker, 26 musicians, 8 carpenters, and 2 sutlers. 

Each company of infantry consists of 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, 1 orderly 
sergeant, 4 sergeants, 9 corporals, 2 drummers, 8 lance corporals ; in time 
of peace 52, and on the war establishment 126, privates. 

The corps of rifles consists of 10 battalions and 1 depot company, each 
battalion having 4 companies. ' 

The staff of the corps consists of 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 10 
majors, 1 intendant, 1 clothing ofiicer, (a captain,) 1 paymaster, 1 sub- 
intendant, 1 quartermaster, 2 lieutenants, 1 regimental adjutant, 10 battalion 
adjutants, 10 surgeons, and 3 lieutenants for the depot company. Each 
company consists of 1 captain, 2 lieutenants, 1 orderly sergeant, 4 ser- 
geants, 1 trumpeter, 11 corporals, 76 privates in time of peace, and 133 
in time of war. The depot company has but 1 orderly sergeant, 2 ser- 
geants, 5 corporals, and 30 privates. 

The non-commissioned staff of the rifle corps consists of 10 battalion 
quartermasters, 1 quartermaster and 14 sergeants of the train, 11 chief 
trumpeters, 11 battalion clerks, 4 corporals of the train, 1 master armorer, 
1 master tailor, 1 master shoemaker, 10 armorers, and 10 sutlers. 

The army is filled by conscription. 

The term of service for the infanti-y and rifles is 16 years, during 8 
of which the men belong to the active army, and for 8 years to the re- 
serve. They serve but 14 months with their regiments in time of peace, 
and are then sent on furlough, being liable to be called out again if 
needed. The tertn of service for the cavalry, artillery, and engineers, is 
8 years' uninterrupted service; these corps are filled with volunteers, sub- 
stitutes, and men drawn by lot from the mass of the conscripts. 

The Sardinian contingent in the Crimea was composed of provisional 
regiments of 2 battalions each ; these were formed by detailing a company 
from every battalion of the infantry, and composed 2 divisions of 4 regi- 
ments, and a reserve brigade. Two companies of every battalion of ber- 
saglieri were present, forming 5 provisional battalions. 

The tactics and instruction of the Sardinian inftmtry differ but little 
from that of the French, from which they are derived. 



THE SARDINIAN INFANTRY. 83 

UNIFORM. 

This is a modification of the French, and is strikingly similar to our own. 

The infantry shako is almost identically ours. 

The frock-coat is dark blue. 

The pants and overcoats are very nearly the color of our own, but of a 
somewhat more grayish hue. 

The overcoat alone was worn in the Crimea, the frock-coat being left 
at home; the overcoat has a large rolling collar, but no cape. Shoes and 
gaiters are used. 

The knapsack is of black leather, and is 15" X 12" X ^V ; it is not 
attached to the waist-belt, but has straps after the Austrian fashion. 

The knapsack contained 1 linen coat, 1 pair of linen pants, 1 woolen 
shirt, 1 linen shirt, 1 pair of drawers, 1 pair of shoes, 1 pair of leather 
gaiters, 1 stock or scarf, and the brushes ; a plaid blanket is strapped to 
the top and sides of the knapsack ; the shelter tent is attached to the 
front of the knapsack. 

The forage cap is of wool, and something between the Greek cap and 
the Turkish fez; it is what is known as the Italian fisherman's cap, and 
has no visor. 

The hat of the bersaglieri is of felt, with a flat rim 3" broad ; the rim 
is stiff, and covered with oiled linen; the crown is round; there is a 
plume of black cocks' feathers. 

Their pants are dark blue, as well as their overcoats. 

ARMS AND ACCOUTREMENTS. 

Twenty men in each company of infantry have the bersaglieri rifle, 
the rest have the ordinary percussion musket, using the Nessler ball. 

The bersaglieri rifle has a 30" barrel, and is quite heavy; it has 8 
grooves, an elevating hausse, and sword bayonet. The beak of the butt- 
plate has a spiked projection some 5" or 6" long, to assist the men in 
climbing hills, &c. 

The range of this rifle is about 600 metres. ' 

The screw-driver is of the shape of a T ; at the end of one branch is a 
gimlet, so that tbe screw-driver may be screwed into a tree to aff"ord a rest. 

The infantry cartridge-box contains 30 rounds, and is attached to the 
waist-belt by a loop of sheet iron ; the bayonet-scabbard is also attached 
to the waist-belt ; the infantry wear no sabre. 

The box of the bersaglieri contains only balls and cleaning-utensils, 
neither cartridges nor patches being used ; the powder is carried in a 
rough wooden powder-horn, suspended by a green cord, and thrust into 
a pocket of the coat. 

There is a separate waist-belt for the sword bayonet of the bersaglieri. 

6 



84 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 




COOKING-UTENSILS. 
For every mess of 16 men there is a sheet-iron camp-kettle with a flat 
cover, and strong iron handle j it is 12" deep, 11" in diameter at top, 

and 10" in diameter at bottom. Frying- 
pans are also used. 

Each man has a mess-can, (little gamelle,) 
of the annexed shape and dimensions; by 
the infantry it is carried stra23ped on top 
of the knapsack. 

The haversack is of linen, lined with 
muslin ; it is slung over the shoulder by a 
leather strap, and contains 3 days' rations. 

The canteen is of wood, made of staves 
and hoops; it is 6^ high, 4^" X^^" at 
bottom, and 4" X 3" at top; the side which 
rests against the body is somewhat flattened, 
so that the bottom and top of the canteen 
are ellipses flattened on one side ; the 
opening is in the middle of the top, and is closed by a screw plug of 
hard wood. 

CAMP EQUIPAGE, ETC. 

The tents are conical : they are 7' 6" high, and 16' 8" in diameter at 
the bottom. 

The men are all provided with shelter tents, which are the same as 
those described in the report upon the French cavalry. 

In the Crimea the men were all hutted. 

Each hut was for 6 men ; a cellar 3' deep, 7' 4" wide, and 14' 8" long 
was first excavated, with steps leading down to it in front ; the frame of 
the roof was formed by rafters, making an angle of 90° with each other; 
over these and at the ends hurdles were placed, which were then covered 
with a thick plaster of clay and straw; a window was left in one end and 
a door in the other. In each hut there was a small fireplace on one side, 
excavated in the side of the cellar, the chimney passing under the eaves. 

The bunks were made of hurdles; shelves, racks, &c., were placed ac- 
cording to the fancy of the inmates. 

The roof projected well beyond the gable ends. 

The organization, discipline, instruction, and personal appearance of 
the Sardinian infantry are excellent : they may be regarded as among 
the best troops of Europe. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 35 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



CHAPTER I. 



OEGANIZATION, TJNIFOEM, EECRUITING, RATIONS, ETC., OF THE 
RUSSIAN ARMY. 

INTRODUCTION. 

It will be seen from the following that the main regular army of Russia, 
the grand active army of operations, presents at least one most important 
and striking feature, viz. : that it is organized solely with a view to great 
military considerations, entirely untrammelled by the necessities of in- 
terior police service in time of peace. Its organization in army corps, 
divisions, &c., is uniformly kept up during peace; it is located solely 
with reference to operations in foreign countries or on the frontiers, and 
is maintained in constant readiness for the field. It may, therefore, fairly 
be regarded as embodying the Russian conception of the perfect organiza- 
tion of large masses for active operations. 

/ The vast experience of the Russians in wars, conducted alike upon the\ 
grandest and most limited scale, — at one time carried on by great masses 
on the level and unobstructed plains of Europe, at another by small de- 
tachments in the rugged mountains of Caucasus and Asia Minor, or on 
the frontiers of Tartary and China; the great perfection to which mili- 
tary science has been carried in the schools and special corps; the in- 
telligence, skill, and courage they have so often evinced, both in attack 
and defence^ — all these considerations render a detailed study of the 
Russian system of war both profitable and interesting. 
/ In addition, there is, perhaps, no European service of which so little 
is known by the oflacers of our army as the Russian./' In this report I 
have given the organization somewhat in detail, — probably too much so to 
interest a mere cursory reader, and not sufficiently to satisfy the student 
of his profession; but the time and means of information at my disposal 
permit no more. In reference to the army of the Caucasus, the com- 
position of which is briefly given, it should be borne in mind that the 
Caucasus is a very rugged mountain region with valleys interspersed; 



86 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

that hostilities there are now ahuost entirely confined to the most diflScult 
portions; that mountain chains form a great part of its boundaries on the 
sides of Turkey and Persia; and that, in the event of an offensive war, 
after having crossed these mountains, the opponents of the Russians 
would consist mostly of irregular cavalry and indifferent infantry. These 
considerations will explain the almost entire absence of regular cavalry 
in that army. It is probable, however, that, in the event of a Persian 
war, some regular cavalry would be added to this army. During the 
Persian campaigns of 1826 and 1827 a division (four regiments) of lancers 
were with the army. 

The system of warfare adopted in the Caucasus is to cut off the low 
and settled regions from the inroads of the mountaineers by Cossack 
settlements and posts of regulars ; to construct roads and bridges through 
the mountains, occupying the passes and other important points by moun- 
tain forts with small garrisons, and, using these forts as depots, to send 
out small movable columns of infantry and irregular cavalry into the 
heart of the hostile region. 

The information contained in this report is derived from personal ob- 
servation, information obtained from Russian officers, the official regula- 
tions and tactics, Haxthausen on the Institutions of Russia, Hirtenfeld's 
Organization of European Armies, the narrative of the campaigns of 
Paskivitch in Asia Minor in 1828 and 1829, and from other sources. 
Errors have probably been committed, but it is believed that the true 
spirit of the organization is given. 

COMPOSITION OF THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 
At the commencement of the Crimean war, the army of Russia was com- 
posed and organized about as follows : 

The emperor is the commander-in-chief of all the forces, by sea and land. 

GRAND STAFF OF THE EMPEROR. 

Its members, in time of peace, participate in the duties of the war 
department, as presidents of committees, &c. It consists of: the minister 
of war; the inspector-general of the various corps of engineers; the in- 
spector-general of artillery; the inspector-general of cavalry; the in- 
spector-general of infantry; the inspector of the military engineers; the 
inspector of artillery; the chief of the general staff; the inspector-gene- 
ral of the army; the commandant of the imperial head-quarters; the sub- 
commandant of the same; the baggage-master general; the inspector- 
general of the medical department; the chaplain-general. 

THE GENERAL AIDES-DE-CAMP. 

This is merely an honorary title bestowed upon distinguished general 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 87 

officers, but involving no especial duty. There are some eighty general 
officers in this category. 

THE AIDES-DE-CAMP OP THE EMPEROR 

consist of about four major-generals, "in the suite;" some thirty field 
officers, and fifteen captains; the number is not limited. These are the 
real aides-de-camp of the emperor. 

THE WAR MINISTRY. 

This is divided into the office of the minister of war and the departments. 
(a.) The first consists of — 

1. The military council of legislation and administration. 

2. The office proper, in six sections. 

3. The committee of general judge advocates. 

4. The committee of military censorship. 

5. The scientific military committee. 

6. The medical committee. 

(i.) The departments. Of these, there are nine, subdivided into seve- 
ral sections, each department having one director, one vice-director, and 
a council of administration. 

1. The department of the grand general stafi", under the chief of the 
general staff; in addition to the usual functions of the general staff, all 
matters pertaining to organization and tactics are referred to this de- 
partment. 

2. The department of the personnel, under the inspector-general of the 
army; this has charge of the recruiting service, the central military 
printing-establishment, and the corps of mounted orderlies and couriers. 

3. The artillery department. 

4. The engineer department. 

5. The commissariat department, for the supply of money for all pur- 
poses, the equipment of the troops, supplies of ammunition, and the 
administration of the military hospitals, under the commissary-general. 

6. The subsistence department. 

7. The department of the military colonies. 

8. The medical department. 

9. The judge advocates' department. 

Under the direction of the war ministry the military authorities of the 
different provinces administer their military affairs ; the commands of the 
infantry, cavalry, and independent corps are under the war ministry. 

THE ARMY. 

This is divided into the main army of operations, reserves, garrison 
troops, irregular troops, gendarmerie, model regiments, and military schools. 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



THE MAIN ARMY OF OPERATIONS. 

Tliis is composed of troops who have not completed their first term of 
service. 

THE GENERAL STAFF 

is divided into the general staff proper and the topographical corps. The 
chief of the general staff is at the head of this administration, and under 
him a chief of the topographical corps. 

The strength of the general staff proper is 17 general officers, 32 
colonels, 48 lieutenant-colonels, 62 captains, and 78 lieutenants. 

It is subdivided into the grand general staff axidi that of the troops. 

The first consists of 9 general officers, 36 field and company officers, 
and is divided into three sections : 

1. The affairs of the personnel of the general staff. 

2. The distribution of troops, including military operations and foreign 
armies. 

8. Scientific section, including historical matters. 

The office of the chief of general staff is for the administration. 

The general staff of the troops is as follows : in each army corps, 1 
general as chief of staff, 2 field and several company officers ; in each 
divisidn, 2 officers. 

The military colonies, reserve troops, and garrison troops, have special 
general staffs of their own. 

TOPOGRAPHICAL CORPS. 

This consists of 1 general as chief, 2 generals, 15 field officers, 91 
captains and lieutenants, and 8 companies of different strer^gth, hut 
amounting to 456 sergeants and privates in all. The officers take rank 
with those of the general staff. 

The corps is subdivided into the topographical depot, the topographical 
companies, and the officers serving on the staff with armies, &c. 

The depot is subordinate to the grand general staff, and attends to the 
engraving and printing of maps, manufacture and repair of instruments, 
&c. It consists of 6 sections : 1, the office ; 2, topographical section ; 
3, astronomical section ; 4, section of engraving and printing ; 5, me- 
chanical section ; 6, archives. 

There are attached to the depot 1 company (of 1 officer and 120 men) 
composed of mechanics, and a topographical school. 

Of the 8 companies, 1 is at the depot, as above, some employed in 
making surveys, the rest in fractions at the head-quarters of armies and 
corps. These companies are usually recruited from among intelligent 
jantonists, (soldiers' sons,) taken at the age of 15. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 89 



AIDES-DE-CAMP. 

These do not form a separate corps; they are of two kinds: those of 
the emperor, as above, and those of the generals. 

The latter are of two classes : senior akhs and personal aides. 

The senior aides are appointed by the emperor, and belong to the com- 
mand ; they superintend the service. The personal aides are selected by 
the generals, and accompany them when they change commands. 

All aides are taken from among officers serving with troops, never 
from the general staff. 

On the staff of an army there are, under the inspector-general, who is 
subordinate to the chief of staff, 5 senior and from 6 to 11 personal 
aides. 

On the staff of a corps, also under the inspector-general of the corps, 
who is subordinate to the chief of staff, there are 2 senior and from 3 to 
4 personal aides. 

On the staff of a division there are 1 senior and 2 personal aides. 

On the staff of a brigade, 1 personal aide. 

/the infantry. 

This is divided into infantry of the line, light infantry, and rifles. / The 
number of regiments is as follows : 12 of the guard, 10 grenadier, 4 car- 
bineer, 42 of the line, and. 42 light. There ai-e also the following inde- 
pendent battalions : 1 Finland rifles of the guard, 1 of grenadier rifles, 
and 7 rifles of the line. 

The different kinds of regiments just mentioned are numbered in sepa- 
rate series ; in addition to its number, each has a name, — generally that 
of some province or uIL^/. Many regiments bear also the names of their 
proprietors, who are the grand dukes, native or foreign princes, distin- 
guished generals, &c. Each regiment of the guard, grenadiers, and car- 
bineers, consists of three active battalions ; each regiment of the line and 
of light infantry has four active battalions. Every battalion is composed 
of four companies. 

On the war establishment, every company consists of 4 officers, 20 ser- 
geants, 8 musicians, and, for the guards, grenadiers, and carbineers, 236 
corporals and privates ; for other troops, 230 corporals and privates. 

The battalion staff consists of: 1 commandant of the battalion, 1 junior 
field officer, 1 adjutant, 1 ensign, and 1 sub-ensign, (both sergeants in 
the line of promotion,) 1 battalion chief drummer, 1 battalion chief 
bugler; in the rifle battalion there is no junior field officer or battalion 
chief drummer, but there are 1 quartermaster and 1 paymaster. 

The staff of a regiment of the line, or light infantry, consists of: 1 
colonel, 1 adjutant, 1 quartermaster, 1 paymaster, 1 band-master, 40 



90 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

musicians, 1 regimental chief drummer, 1 regimental chief bugler; the 
regiments of guards, grenadiers, and carbineers have, in addition to the 
commander of the regiment, (who is a major-general,) 1 colonel, and 50 
musicians instead of 40. 

The strength of a battalion of the line or light infantry is, then, 1,055 
combatants. 

The strength of a battalion of guards, grenadiers, or carbineers, is 
1,079 combatants. 

The strength of a regiment of 4 battalions (line or light infantry) is 
4,267 combatants. 

The strength of a regiment of 3 battalions (guard, grenadiers, «S:c.) is 
3,294 combatants. 

To each regiment there belongs a company of the train, which com- 
prises the teamsters, mechanics, (except tailors and shoemakers,) hospital 
attendants, and officers' servants. In a regiment of the line the company 
of the train consists of: 1 officer, 7 sergeants, 280 corporals and pi'ivates, 
280 horses, and 71 wagons and carts; these men are not included in the 
force of combatants as given above. 

These companies of the train form the train battalion of the division ; 
every independent battalion has a company or section of the train. 
Attached to each regiment are a surgeon and several assistants. 

The regiments of infantry are permanently organized into brigades, 
divisions, and army corps; 2 regiments form a brigade, 2 brigades a 
division, 3 divisions (with the proper proportion of the other arms of 
service) a corps. 

/"the cavalry. 

This consists of cuirassiers, dragoons, lancers, hussars, and Cossacks. 
The number of regiments is as follows : cavalry of the guard — cuirassiers 
4, dragoons 2, lancers 2, hussars 2, Cossacks 2, and 52- independent 
squadrons; cavalry of the army — cuirassiers 8, dragoons 9, lancers 20, 
and hussars IC. 

The regiments are named and numbered in a similar manner to the 
infantry. 

All the cuirassier regiments, and all the cavalry of the guard, have six 
active squadrons per regiment ; the dragoons of the line have ten active 
squadrons per regiment; all the rest of the regiments, except two of 
lancers and two of hussars, (forming the reserve light cavalry division,) 
have eight active squadrons. 

On the war establishment, the full strength of each squadron is, 6 
officers, 16 sergeants, 3 trumpeters, 146 corporals and privates ; there are 
also, usually, an assistant veterinary surgeon and a horse-shoer. 

The staff of a regiment of six squadrons consists of: 1 colonel, 3 field 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 91 

officers, (one to command each division of two squadrons,) 1 adjutant, 
1 quartermaster, 1 paymaster, 1 chief veterinary surgeon, and 1 regi- 
mental trumpeter : in a regiment of eight squadrons there is one additional 
field officer, to command the 4th division. 

The dragoons of the line have each five divisions, of which the first 
four (having two trumpeters and two drummei's to each squadron) are 
stronger by two musicians, each, than the divisions of other cavalry; 
the 5th division is as other cavalry. The staff of a dragoon regiment has 
one field officer more than a regiment of eight squadrons, and also a regi- 
mental drummer. 

The strength of a regiment of 6 squadrons is, thus, 1,034 combatants. 
u u 8 " 1,377 " 

" " 10 " 1,729 " 

Two regiments of cavalry, usually of the same kind, form a brigade ; 
two brigades, of different kinds, form a division ; two or more divisions 
form a cavalry corps. 

ARTILLERY. 

There are batteries of position, or heavy foot batteries, light foot bat- 
teries, heavy and light horse batteries, and mountain batteries. 

A battery consists of 8 or 12 pieces, and is usually commanded by a 
field officer. Each battery has its own section of the train. 

A heavy foot battery consists of six 12-pounder guns, six 28-pounder 
licornes, 7 officers, 312 men, and 241 horses; or of four 12-pounder guns, 
four 28-pounder licornes, 7 officers, 222 men, and 177 horses. 

A ligbt foot battery: six 6-pounder guns, six 14-pounder licornes, 7 
officers, 246 men, and 167 horses ; or of four 6-pounder guns, four 14- 
pounder licornes, 7 officers, 172 men, and 128 horses. 

A heavy horse battery : eight 28-pounder licornes, 8 officers, 282 men, 
and 374 horses. 

A light horse battery : four 6-pounder guns, four 14-pounder licornes, 
7 officers, 219 men, and 284 horses. 

A Cossack battery : four 6-pounder guns, four 14-pounder licornes, 5 
officers, 202 men, and 273 horses. 

A mountain battery : eight 3-pounder guns, four 4" mortars, (weight 
46 pounds,) 7 officers, 222 men, and 229 horses. 

The heavy horse batteries have eight horses to each piece ; the light 
horse batteries, and heavy foot, six horses per piece ; the light foot bat- 
teries, four horses to each piece. 

The caissons are two-wheeled carts, drawn by three horses abreast ; 
each 12-pounder gun and 28-pounder licorne has three of these carts; 
each 6-pounder gun and 14-pounder licorne has two carts. 

The foot and horse artillery have separate organizations. 



92 THEARMIESOFEUROPE. 

T'rom two to four batteries form a brigade ; from two to four brigades, 
a division. It is proper to state that the organization, as given above, 
bids fair to be superseded, partially, at all events, by the introduction of 
the Napoleon gun-howitzer ; these guns were being cast, in large numbers, 
in St. Petersburg, in 1855. 

ENGINEER TROOPS. 

These consist of battalions of sappers and squadrons of mounted 
pioneers. 

The number of battalions is as follows : 1 of the guard, 1 of the grena- 
diers, 6 of the line, and 1 of the Caucasus. 

There are two squadrons of mounted pioneers of the guard, and two 
squadrons belonging to the corps of dragoons ; this is the peace establish- 
ment, to be increased to sixteen squadrons in time of war. 

Each battalion of sappers consists of four companies. 

Each company is composed of 5 officers, 20 sergeants, 6 musicians, and 
230 corporals and privates ; on the battalion staff are 6 officers and 2 
sergeants. 

The strength of each division (two squadrons) of the mounted pioneers 
is 13 officers, 29 sergeants, 8 musicians, 328 corporals and privates, and 
275 horses. 

In time of peace, each battalion has one ponton train of 42 pontons, 
and as many wagons ; each squadron of the mounted pioneers has eight 
leather pontons. 

THE ARMY CORPS. 

The active troops heretofore enumerated form the following army corps : 
the corps of infantry of the guard, and the corps of grenadiers, both elite 
corps, and destined to form the reserves of the active army of operations ; 
six infantry corps ; the corps of the Caucasus ; the reserve cavalry corps 
of the guards ; the first and second reserve cavalry corps ; the reserve 
light cavalry division. 

The corps of the Caucasus forms the basis of the army of the Caucasus ; 
its composition, and that of the other corps, will be given hereafter. It 
is now necessary to explain the law of distribution of regiments, &c., in 
the brigades, divisions, and corps. 

The corps of infantry of the guard consists of 9 regiments of grena- 
diers of the guard, and 3 regiments of light infantry of the guard. 

These are organized in 6 brigades, numbered from 1 to 6, and 3 divi- 
sions : the 1st brigade is composed of two regiments of grenadiers ; the 
2d brigade consists of 1 regiment of grenadiers and 1 of light infantry; 
these 2 brigades form the 1st division. The brigades of the other divi- 
sions are constituted in a similar manner. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 93 

Of the 10 regiments of grenadiers and 4 of carbineers, the first 9 of 
the former and the first 3 of the latter form the infantry divisions of the 
corps of grenadiers. The 10th grenadiers and the 4th carbineers form 
the dlite brigade of the army of the Caucasus. 

The infantry of the corps of grenadiers is formed in 3 divisions, 
organized exactly as the corps of infantry of the guard ; the carbineers 
taking the place of the light infantry regiments of the guard. The in- 
fantry brigades and divisions of the guard and the grenadiers are each 
numbered in a separate series. 

In the troops of the line, as distinguished from the two elite corps, 2 
regiments of heavy infantry, or 2 of light infantry, form a brigade ; a 
division is composed of one brigade of heavy and one brigade of light 
infantry ; 3 such divisions constitute the main body of the infantry of an 
infantry corps. There are 42 regiments of heavy and 42 of light infantry, 
forming 21 divisions, numbered in a regular series. The first 18 divisions 
belong to the six infantry corps, the last 3 to the army of the Caucasus. 
In these 21 divisions there are 21 brigades of heavy and 21 of light 
infantry ; 42 in all. The 1st and 2d regiments of heavy infantry 
(infantry of the line) form the 1st brigade of infantry of the line; the 
1st and 2d regiments of light infantry form the 1st brigade of light 
infantry; these two brigades form the 1st division of infantry. The 2d 
division is composed of the 3d and 4th regiments of heavy and light 
infantry. The 1st, 2d, and 3d divisions belong to the 1st corps. In the 
same manner they run in regular series through the six corps. 

The cavalry of the guard forms the corps of reserve cavalry of the 
guard; its regiments are numbered independently of the rest of the 
cavalry. The 8 regiments of army cuirassiers compose 2 divisions of the 
1st reserve cavalry corps. The first 8 regiments of army dragoons con- 
stitute the 2d reserve cavalry corps ; the 9th regiment belongs to the 
army of the Caucasus. The 16 regiments- of army hussars form 8 bri- 
gades, in which they are distributed in a similar manner to the infantry 
regiments ; the first 6 brigades belong to the infantry corps of the same 
numbers ; the 7th brigade to the corps of grenadiers ; the 8th to the 
reserve light cavalry division. 

The 20 regiments of army lancers form 10 brigades, the first seven of 
which serve with the corresponding hussar brigades, thus forming the 
light cavalry divisions attached to the infantry and grenadier corps; the 
8th and 9th brigades form the lancer division of the 1st cavalry reserve 
corps; the 10th belongs to the reserve light cavalry division. 

The artillery of the guards and grenadiers is numbered independently 
of the rest of the artillery, except the brigade of the horse artillery of 
the grenadiers. There are 6 divisions of army field artillery for the 6 
infantry corps, the division bearing the number of its corps. 



94 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

Eacli division consists of one brigade of horse artillery, each brigade 
bearing the number of its corps, and the batteries numbered in regular 
series, and of 3 brigades of foot artillery ; the brigades of the latter, as 
well as the batteries, are numbered in regular series throughout. 

The batteries of heavy and light foot artillery are numbered separately. 
The brigade of horse artillery serving with the corps of grenadiers is 
numbered the 7th, to correspond with the light cavalry division of that 
corps. The brigades of horse artillery act with, and are regarded as be- 
longing to, the cavalry divisions of their respective corps. 

The artillery of the army of the Caucasus has a separate organization. 
The rifle battalions bear the numbers or names of the corps to which they 
belong. 

The same rule applies to the sappers and the brigades of the train. 

The rule explained above will be more clearly understood by giving an 
example; the fifth infantry corps will be taken for that purpose ; its com- 
position is as follows : 

FIFTH INFANTRY CORPS. 

r 9th regiment of lancers. 



5tli division light cavalry. 

13th division of infantrj'. 
14th division of infantry,. 



5th lancer brigade , „ , 

(. lOtn regiment of lancers. 

... , I • J r 9th regiment of hussars. 

5th hussar brigade ■{ , ° 

V. 1 10th regiment of hussars. 

f 25th and 26th regiments infantry of the line. 

\ 25th and 26th regiments light infantry. 

f 27th and 28th regiments infantry of the line. 

\ 27th and 28th regiments light infantry. 



5th division field artillery. 



,.,,,... „. , , f 29th and 30th regiments infantry of the line. 
15th division of infantry.. J *=. ,. , /^ . 

I. 29th and 30th regiments light infantry. 

' 5th brigade horse artillery, light horse batteries, Nos. 9 and 10. 

r Battery of position, No. 17. 

13th brigade foot artillery.. J ^-^^^'y "^ position. No. 18. 
1 Light foot battery, No. 33. 
[ Light foot battery. No. 34. 
r Battery of position, No. 19. 

1 jit, u • J c I. i'li „ ,' Light foot battery. No. 35. 
14th brigade foot artillery.. J =■ •" 

I Light foot battery. No. 36. 

[ Light foot battery, No. 37. 

C Battery of position, No. 20. 

15th brigade foot artillery.. ^'S^^ f°«' ^''"ery. No. 38. 

1 Light foot battery. No. 39. 

[ Light foot battery, No. 40. 
Rifle battalion. No. 5. 
Sapper battalion. No. 5, 5th brigade of the train. 

There will now be given the general composition and strength of the 
several army corps : 



TJIE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



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96 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



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98 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

RESERVE TROOPS OF THE GRAND ARMY. 

There are two classes of reserve troops, the reserve and the depot 
troops. Authorities differ somewhat as to the constitution of these re- 
serves, but it is believed that the description here given will give a 
correct idea of the principles of their formation, although it may be in- 
correct in some details. 

The term of service in the Russian army is : twenty years in the mili- 
tary colonies, twenty-three years in the guards, twenty-five years in other 
corps. 

By the late Emperor Nicholas was introduced the system of granting 
unlimited furloughs to soldiers who had served faithfully for a certain 
time. For the purposes of conscription, Russia in Europe is divided 
into the eastern and western provinces, the line of separation being 
pretty nearly the meridian of Moscow. 

The soldiers from the eastern provinces and the military colonies 
receive their furlough after fifteen years' service ; those from the western 
provinces, after ten years' service; both categories then pass into the 
reserves. Any soldier who entered the service in consequence of civil 
misdemeanors, or who has been condemned to punishment for a serious 
offence while in the service, loses his right to the furlough, and, in the 
latter case, may even be required to serve longer than twenty-five 
years. 

The soldiers from the western provinces and the colonies compose the 
mass of the first reserve, (reserve proper.) They are called together for 
exercise during about four weeks in every year, and in time of war are 
the first called upon for service. In this case, they are either drafted 
into the active battalions, squadrons, &c., or may serve as battalions, &c., 
by themselves. In time of peace, when not called out for drill, they 
exercise their civil avocations as any other persons. 

The second reserve (depot troops) are only called out in time of war. 

The small permanent skeletons of these reserve battalions, squadrons, 
and batteries, serve as schools of instruction for recruits, who are usually 
kept there about a year before joining their regiments. 

The principal depot for the instruction of infantry recruits is at 
Moscow. 

The reserve troops are officered by officers on leave of absence, on the 
retired list, &c. 

Through the whole army, including the guards, there is for every regi- 
ment of infantry a reserve battalion, for every regiment of cavalry a 
reserve squadron, for every brigade of artillery a reserve battery, and two 
reserve battalions of sappers. 

Omitting the guards, there is for every regiment of infantry a depot 



THE E us SI AN ARMY. 99 

battalion, for every regiment of cavalry a depot squadron, for every brigade 
of foot artillery a depot battery, and two depot battalions of sappers. 

TROOPS HAVING A LOCAL DESTINATION. THE ARMY OP THE 

CAUCASUS. 

The regiments of the divisions of infantry, (19th, 20th, and 21st,) 
forming the basis of the army of the Caucasus, have lately, perhaps only 
temporarily, been increased to 5 battalions each, and the regiments of the 
elite brigade to 4 battalions each ; the regular portion of this army is 
then as follows : 

divisions of infantry, each of 4 regiments of 5 battalions.. 62,880 men. 

1 ^lite brigade (10th grenadiers and 4th carbineers of 4 
battalions each) 8,576 " 

1 battalion of rifles 1,048 " 

47 regular battalions of native troops 49,585 " 

1 battalion of sappers 1,052 " 

1 regiment of dragoons (the 9th) of 10 squadrons 1,729 " 

1 division of artillery, of 4 brigades, having in all : 4 heavy 

foot batteries of 12 pieces each, 6 light foot batteries of 

8 pieces each, 6 mountain batteries of 12 pieces each; 

total 168 pieces, and 1 rocket battery 3,953 " 

Total regular troops : 123,141 infantry, 1,729 cavalry, 3,953 artillery, 
1,052 sappers, and 168 pieces and 1 rocket battery. 

Of the reserve and depot battalions and squadrons of the 19th, 20th, 
and 21st divisions, the elite brigade, and the dragoon regiment, one-half 
are kept constantly under arms and ready to march. 

Of the troops mentioned hereafter under the head of irregulars, the 
Cossacks of the line of the Caucasus, the Mussulmen, and a portion of 
the Cossacks of the Don and the Black Sea, are constantly under arms 
and ready for service. All of the Cossacks of the Don, and those of 
the Black Sea, can be made available if necessary. 

In other European nations, the regular troops destined to form the 
army of operations in war, perform during peace the service of the 
interior, which is confided to the national guards and militia in war; but . 
in Russia this service is performed by a special regular army, the neces- /\ 
sary cavalry and field artillery for which are chiefly furnished by the Cos- 
sacks. These troops are charged with the service in the fortresses and 
cities, with the defence of certain turbulent portions of the frontiers, the 
administration of the arsenals, workshops, &c. 

Infantry. — 12 battalions of Finland form the 22d division of infantry, 
and perform the interior service of Finland. 

r 



100 THE ARMIES OF EUROTE. 

10 Orenburg battalions form the 23d division of infantry, and are 
charged with the interior service of that province. 

15 battalions of Siberia compose the 24th division of infantry, and 
perform the interior service of that region. This division is organized in 
3 brigades, and has 2 guns with each brigade. 

50 battalions of guards of the interior ; each battalion having 21 
officers and 1,000 men, and divided into 4 companies. For every 5 
battalions there are 5 howitzers, (licornes.) These troops are employed 
in European Russia, partly as the garrisons of fortresses, partly in the 
open cities. They are charged, also, with the transportation of the 
reserves, recruits, &c., their commanders having the superintendence of 
the reserves of all classes. Each battalion has attached to it a penal 
section, for minor oflFenders from the army. In these battalions are many 
veterans. 

Cavalry. — There are 11 J squadrons oi gendarmes, with a total strength 
of 2,364. In time of peace, they act as a military police ; in war, they 
serve at the head-quarters of corps and armies in the field, having charge 
of the police, prisoners, &c. 

Artillery. — 98 companies of garrison artillery, each company consist- 
ing of 4 officers and 165 men. These companies serve the artillery of 
the fortresses, and some serve at the arsenals, &c. 

12 arsenal companies, of the same strength as the last. These serve at 
the arsenals, foundries, artillery workshops, small-arm factories, powder- 
mills, &c. 

6 laboratory companies, each consisting of 4 officers and 182 men. 
They are stationed at the six principal laboratories of the empire. 

Engineers. — This corps consists of 10 general officers, and 342 other 
officers, in addition to 25 companies of workmen, (selected mechanics,) 
of 3 officers and 208 men each. They are charged with the construction 
of fortifications and the care of material ; 54 penal companies (soldiers 
condemned to labor on the fortifications) are under their direction. This 
garrison engineer corps has also charge of 2 engineer parks for the supply 
of sapper and pontonier materials. 

552 companies of infantry veterans, who are on service in the smaller 
towns and villages, have places in the post-office service, act as orderlies 
in government offices, take charge of public buildings, &c. 271 invalid 
establishments, many of whose members perform similar services to those 
last mentioned. 

THE MODEL REGIMENTS. 

The object of the model regiment of cavalry is to secure a uniform 
system of equitation and instruction throughout that arm of service. It 
consists of 6 J squadrons, viz. : \ squadron of Cossacks, 1 squadron of 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 101 

cuirassiers, 1 squadron of hussars, 2 squadrons of dragoons, 2 squadrons 
of lancers. It is composed of officers, non-commissioned officers, and 
privates from all the regiments of cavalry; after going through a thorough 
course of instruction, they return to their respective regiments. With 
similar objects, there are also established a model regiment of infantry; 
a model battery of horse artillery; a model battery of foot artillery; and 
a model battalion for the army of the Caucasus. Officers and men 
generally serve one year with the model regiments. 

MILITARY SCHOOLS. 

As these will be fully treated of by another member of the commission, 
it is only necessary to state here that they are numerous and admirable. 
It is difficult to perceive iu what respect they are inferior to any in 
Europe. 

The majority of the officers come from the military schools, and the 
absolute necessity of such institutions is fully recognized. 

IRREGULAR TROOPS. 

/ These include the Cossacks, Caucasians, Calmucks, Tartars, Boschkirs, 
&c. These people ai-e not subjected to the ordinary conscription, but, being 
exempt from certain taxes, are required to furnish, at their own expense, 
a certain quota per district. The organization of all these troops is based , 
upon that of the Cossacks, who form the most important and effective 
portion. , 

The great mass is of cavalry, with some batteries, and a few battalions 
of infantry, for service in special districts. 

The sotnia is the unit, both of cavalry and infantry; its strength 
varies from 100 to 200 men. 

All the officers are appointed by the emperor; the subaltern grades 
alone being filled, as a general rule, by Cossacks. 

Although the Cossacks are all classed under the general name of 
irregulars^there are many regiments which are, in reality, regular light 
cavalry /^it is probable that the Cossacks of the guard, and many of those] 
of the Don, are the best regular light cavalry in the world. I have 
witnessed manoeuvres of the Cossacks of the guard conducted with a 
precision that it would be impossible to exceed. j 

The service of the irregular troops is mostly performed on the frontiers, 
and in the more wild and disturbed portions of the empire, e.g. in Siberia, 
on the frontiers of China and Tartary, in the Caucasus, on the Danube, 
&c. Yet large bodies of them are with the regular troops in Poland, &c., 
and they are much employed at the custom-houses as police, &c. The 
Cossacks of the Don and the Oui'al, being no longer in direct and con- 
stant contact with an enemy, may, ere long, cease to exist as such; at 



102 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



present, many of them are employed in the Caucasus. The Cossacks of 
the Sea of Azoff man the gun-boats used on that sea and on the coast of 
the Caucasus. 

The Cossacks of the Black Sea are now chiefly in the Kuban; and it 
was by a union of a portion of these with the mountain Cossacks that 
the formidable Cossacks of the line of the Caucasus were formed. 

It is impossible to obtain accurate and full information as to the numbers 
of the irregular troops; the enumeration of Cossacks given below is 
probably below the true number. 

EFFECTIVE STRENGTH OF THE COSSACKS. 





> 

=3 

Cm 

O 

"S 

a 

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> 

o 
o 

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o 


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o 

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Names of Cossack armies. 


« 

o 

K 


>> 

o 
o 
Ph 


"3 
o 


Approximate strength, 
exclusive of artillery. 


1. Army of the Don 

2. Army of the Danube.... 

3. Army of the Black Sea.. 

4. Army of line of Caucasus. 

5. Army of Oural 

6. Army of Orenburg 

7. Army of Astrakan 


58 
2 

12 

18 

12 

10 

:i 

9 


348 
12 

74 

108 
60 
60 
18 
54 
8 




14 


112 




112 


42,000 cavalry. 
1,700 cavalry. 

( 9,000 cavalry. 

1 9,000 infantry. 
16,000 cavalry. 
7,500 cavalry. 
7,500 cavalry. 
2,000 cavalry. 
6,500 cavalry. 


9 


4 
3 


24 
24 


8 


32 
24 




3 
1 
3 


24 

8 

24 




24 

8 

24 


9. Army of Chinese frontier. 
10. Army of cities of Siberia. 


1,000 cavalry. 
24,000 infantry. 


24 


















Total 


124 


742 


33 


28 


216 


8 


224 


( 93,000 cavalry. 
1 33,000 infantry. 



On the Chinese frontier there are also five regiments of Toungouse 
cavalry. In the Caucasus there are regiments of native irregulars, Mus- 
sulmen, &c. During the campaigns of 1828 and 1829 there were with 
the army of Marshal Paskivitch four regiments of 3Iussulmen cavalry; 
the number has been increased since then. 



RECRUITING, ETC. 

/ The ofiicers of the army are chiefly supplied by young nobles, who 
enter the service after having passed, as cadets, through some of the 
numerous military schools, or else have prepared themselves by serving 
six months as privates, two years as sergeants, and then as ensigns in the 
regiments; and partly by sergeants, who, after twelve years' irreproachable 
service, have the right to demand an examination for the grade of ensign. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 103 

The ensign is a non-commissionecl officer in the line of promotion, and 
must pass an examination before receiving a commission. 

Tlie officers of the general staff {etat major) are selected from officers 
of all arms, who, after having served two years, apply for the corps. 
They must be recommended by their commanders, then pass an examina- 
tion before being admitted to the school of the general staff; having 
spent two years at this school, they undergo a final examination ; if they 
pass this, they receive vacancies as they occur, serving meanwhile with 
arms of service different from that to which they originally belonged. 

The non-commissioned officers, musicians, soldiers, veterinaries, master- 
workmen, &c., are supplied in three ways: first, by conscription; second, 
from the cantonists; third, by voluntary enlistment. 

For the purposes of the conscription, the European provinces are 
divided into two parts, the eastern and the western; the line of demar- 
cation follows very nearly the meridian of Moscow. In time of peace 
each of these divisions takes turns in furnishing the annual supply of 
recruits, which is five men out of every 1,000 souls of the division called 
upon. But in time of war, or whenever the exigencies of the service de- 
mand it, this ratio is increased, or both divisions are called upon at once. 
There are certain conditions which exempt from the conscription : for 
instance, if there is but one male in a family; being the father of three 
young children; being an orphan or a foundling, &c., &c. In the com- 
munities called upon, lots are cast; but it is mentioned as a singular in- 
stance of the workings of chance that the lot is very apt to fall upon the 
most worthless characters in the community. 

Under the head of conscription it may be mentioned that men guilty 
of civil offences are frequently condemned to serve in the army: for in- 
stance, if a coachman carelessly drives over any one in the streets, he is 
sent forthwith to the army; vagabonds, thieves, gipsies, dissipated men, 
etc., are not unfrequently condemned to serve. Yet mingled with these 
worthless characters are many good men : in fact, the latter preponderate, 
and the influence of rigid discipline soon converts the others at least 
into good soldiers, if not into good men. Any one designated as a con- 
script may purchase a substitute, if he can find one. 

The cantonista are soldiers' children, educated for the army at the ex- 
pense of the State. / Every son of a non-commissioned officer or soldier, 
born after his father enters the service, is necessarily a cantonist. 

At the option of his parents, he may be taken care of in one of two 
ways: he may remain with them until the age of twenty, the government 
allowing him clothing and rations, and then enter the army as a private 
soldier; or he may, at the age of six, be taken charge of by the govern- 
ment, and is then brought up at one of the establishments maintained for 
the purpose. 



104 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

With regard to the cantonists of the first class, the State assists in their 
education, which is not so perfect as that of the others; those who are 
physically unfit for the service are apprenticed to a trade, and finally 
sent to the military colonies. 

The cantonists of the second class remain at the preparatory establish- 
ments until the age of 12; they then enter the corps of cantonists, which 
consists of 25 battalions, 20 squadrons, 5 batteries, 1 regimental school 
of the guards, 14 ai'tillery division schools, 3 sapper brigade schools, 1 
Cossack school, and 1 Siberian school. 

At about the age of 17 they leave the corps of cantonists, and enter either 
the hattalions of instruction, where 8 battalions of carbineers, 1 squadron 
of dragoons, (attached to the model regiment of cavalry,) 3 batteries, and 
1 battalion of sappers are destined to receive them, or enter the special 
schools, among which are, 11 schools of the garrison artillery, for edu- 
cating non-commissioned officers, 3 technical schools, for the education 
of master-workmen in the armories, 3 for mastei'-workmen in the powder- 
mills, 3 for master-workmen in the arsenals, 1 veterinary school, 1 surgical 
school, 1 school for accountants, 1 topographical school, 1 school for 
riding-masters, and 1 for fencing-masters; finally, they may enter the army 
directly from the corps of cantonists. 

With the means thus provided, the cantonists furnish excellent non- 
commissioned officers, clerks, musicians, master-workmen, veterinaries, 
&c., &c. 

This would seem to be the proper place for alluding to the laws with 
regard to the marriage of officers and men. 

No officer is allowed to marry without permission ; this permission is 
granted only when either the officer, or the lady whom he is about to 
marry, possesses a certain amount of property. This amount is different 
for different grades, and is intended to be sufficient to enable the officer 
to support his family in a manner befitting his condition during his life, 
and to give them a decent competence after his death. The marriage of 
the soldiers is encouraged, for the reason that the institution of the can- 
tonists prevents their children from being an encumbrance to the regi- 
ment and a burden upon the State. 

Wherever it is possible, suites of rooms are appropriated to the married 
soldiers : more than one ftimily usually living in the same room. 

Yolunturi/ enlistments are comparatively few. To every volunteer who 
presents himself the government advances a certain bounty, which it 
receives back again from the first conscript who desires a substitute. The 
greater part of the bounty is invested for the volunteer, who receives but 
a small portion of it before the expiration of his enlistment. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 105 

THE MILITARY COLONIES. 

Those for the cavah-y and horse artillery are in the south of Russia. 

(a) The Ukraine colony, in the government of Charkoff : here are the 
2d reserve cavalry corps, the 6th division of light cavalry, and 6th 
brigade of horse artillery. 

(h) Colony of South Russia, in the government of Cherson : 1st reserve 
cavalry corps. 

(c) Colony of the Boug, in the government of Podolia : 4th division 
of light cavalry, and 4th brigade of horse artillery. 

(d) Colony of the Lower Boug, in the government of Cherson : 5th 
division of light cavalry, and 5th brigade of horse artillery. 

The reserve light cavalry division, and the reserve batteries of the 
horse artillery belonging to the infantry corps, are also in these colonies. 

The arrangement of the colonies is as follows : one-half the ground is 
reserved for the support of the troops, and is cultivated by the colonists ; 
the other half is divided among the colonists, each family having 240 
acres, one plough, and a house. From 40 to 50 houses form a plaioon, 
180 to 190 a squadron, or village, and from 6 to 10 squadrons a regi- 
ment. 

The officers preserve military and civil order among the colonists. 

Each house is required to feed and lodge a soldier, without his horse, 
the soldier assisting his host in his work. The colonist is exempt from 
all taxes, military liabilities, &c. The possession passes down to the 
eldest son, and renders him exempt from military duties, while the other 
sons become cantonists, like soldiers' children, and are eventually taken 
into the regiment. 

In the colonies every married soldier has a separate house. In every 
village there are stables, riding-houses, hospitals, arsenals, &c. 

The infantry colonies, near Novgorod, are no longer true colonies; the 
system has been abandoned there, and at present certain troops are can- 
toned there, under no peculiar regulations. 

UNIFORM. 

The predominant color of the Russian uniform is dark green. A frock- V, 
coat is worn by all grades, and all arms of service ; it is green, except for 
certain portions of the cavalry. 

Boots are worn by all arms ; they are habitually inside the pants, except 
for the cuirassiers, who, in full dress, wear the jack boot ; the infantry, 
however, on the march, tuck the pants inside of the boot-legs. 

The stock is of green cloth, and fastens by a button ; it has in front a 
flap, some four or five inches long. 

The distinctions of regiments, divisions, and corps, are found in the 



106 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

buttons, shoulder-straps, and facings of the cuffs and collar; sometimes 
in the head-covering and the color of the dress. 

On certain occasions the officers wear sashes ; these are of silver cloth 
for the guard, and of mohair, colored white, black, and orange, for the 
rest of the army; the tassel is worn behind the left hip. The sword-knot 
is of similar material and color. Officers on duty wear the gorget; a 
crescent-shaped metallic plate, hung around the neck, and resting on the 
breast just below the collar. Generals, staff officers, and adjutants of 
infantry, wear a straight sword. The different grades of officers are dis- 
tinguished chiefly by the epaulettes, or shoulder-straps. 

Company officers wear epaulettes without bullion, i.e. merely the strap 
and crescent, the latter of wire instead of solid metal ; a sub-lieutenant 
has one star on the strap of each epaulette, a lieutenant two stars, a cap- 
tain three. Field officers have a very short and light bullion ; a major 
has one star, a lieutenant-colonel two, a colonel three. 

General officers wear a heavier bullion, of the pattern known as the 
box-epaulette ; a major-general has one star, a lieutenant-general two, a 
general three. A field marshal wears a still heavier epaulette, with three 
stars, and a distinctive gold embroidery on the collar. 

All officers have, in full dress, lace or embroidery on the collar and 
cuffs, distinctive of rank. 

The aiguillctte is worn by staff officers. 

Mounted officers are required to wear their spurs on all occasions. The 
helmet is worn by all staff officers ; officers serving with regiments wear a 
head-dress similar to that of their men. 

The forage cap of the officers is flat, with a large round top, and a 
peaked visor. General officers wear scarlet pants, with a gold stripe. 

Other officers wear dark green pants with a red cord, except in those 
regiments where the men wear pants of some other color than green. 

Infantry officers wear an overcoat of the same cut and color as those of 
the men. 

Cavalry and staff officers wear a mantle, or loose overcoat, with a long- 
cape, and of a dark gray color. 

Recently a field uniform has been adopted for the officers, in which the 
epaulettes are replaced by shoulder-straps of a shape similar to those worn 
by the men. 

The distinctive mark of a non-commissioned officer is a narrow strip of 
gold or silver lace (depending upon the color of the button) on the upper 
and front edges of the collar and on the cuffs. 

Chevrons are worn on one arm, and merely designate length of service. 

The soldiers' clothing is of a very coarse but serviceable material, and is 
made up in the regiments. 

The same overcoat is worn by all arms of service ; it is of a brownish- 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 107 

gray color; very long, reaching to within three or four inches of the 
bottom of the pants ; double-breasted, standing collar, without cape ; it is 
made very loose by means of large plaits in the back, which can be 
gathered up by a strap and button ; the buttons, shoulder-straps, cuff and 
collar facings, are the same as those of the uniform coat. As the men 
have no blanket in the field, the overcoat is their only protection. It is 
the habitual and favorite dress of the Russian soldier; on the march the 
infantry hook up the skirts. 

The forage cap, for all arms, is low, with a flat, round top, and has no 
visor; it is of the color of the overcoat, usually has a red cloth band, with 
the number of the company in yellow cloth, and a red cord around the 
edge of the top. 

Instead of socks, the men have bandages of linen, which they wrap 
around the feet. Shirts and drawers are issued. 

INFANTRY. 

Black leather helmet, with a brass spear-head; thin strap, plated with 
brass scales ; large imperial eagle of brass on the front. 

Coat, dark green ; distinction of regiments and divisions as follows : 
number of the regiment on the button, which is yellow ; number of the 
division on the shoulder-straps, which are shaped like those upon the old 
United States private's undress jacket. Infantry of the line have red 
facings on their collars ; light infantry, dark green ; both have red cuff- 
facings. The ] st regiment of each brigade of infantry of the line have 
red, the 2d white shoulder-straps ; the 1st regiment of each brigade of 
light infantry have light blue, the 2d dark green shoulder-straps. The 
rifle battalions have white buttons and shoulder-straps; black facings. 
Pants of all the infantry, dark green, with a red cord; in summer, white 
linen. 

CAVALRY. 

Pants, except for the Cossacks and dragoons of the Caucasus, light blue, 
with a red cord, and re-enforced with black leather. 

Cuirassiers. — 3Ietallic helmet, white coat, with facings of various colors 
for the different regiments ; white gauntlets. 

Dragoons. — Helmet like that of the infantry, but with black horsehair 
plumes; coat, dark green, yellow buttons, brass shoulder-scales. 

Lancers. — Czapka, or Polish lancer cap, of same color as the facings; 
water-proof cover. Coat, sky-blue ; facings different for different regi- 
ments ; buttons white. 

Hussars. — Cloth shako, nearly cylindrical, but a little larger at the top 
than at bottom; visor sloping and peaked; hair haekle; cap cord; water- 
proof cover. Coats of various colors, trimmed with bright cord; shoulder- 



108 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

knot of cord of same color as the trimmings. In full dress, tte pelisse is 
worn. 

In the cavalry, the number of the regiment, &c., is indicated in a 
manner similar to that pursued in the infantry. 

All officers of cavalry wear a pistol cartridge-box, suspended by a 
shoulder-belt; it is richly decorated with metal. 

Cossacks of tlie guard. — Pants, dark blue, with a red stripe ; coat, dark 
blue; no buttons; fastens by hooks; worsted epaulettes, without bullion. 
Cylindrical fur shako, without visor ; double pompon on the left side ; 
cloth bag hanging down on the right side ; water-proof cover. 

All the head-dresses heretofore mentioned have on the front a brass 
imperial eagle, 6f inches high and 62 inches broad; on this is the num- 
ber of the regiment. 

Dragoons of the Caucasus. — Light gray pants; dark gray coat, cut 
like that of the Cossacks of the guard. 

Hat, turban -shaped, with a crown of cloth, and a broad thick band of 
lamb's wool. , 

The Cossacks of the line of the Caucasus, most of the other Cossacks, 
and, on service, most of the regular troops serving in the Caucasus, wear 
the hat described for the dragoons of the Caucasus. 

The dress of the Cossacks is loose and easy; generally of dark 
colors. 

The Mussulmen troops wear the high, pointed Persian cap of lamb's 
wool; their dress is cut in the Persian style, and is generally of very 
bright colors, — each man selecting those colors which suit his fancy. 

Arttlleri/. — Dragoon helmet; coat dark green, yellow buttons, black 
facings, red shoulder-straps. Horse artillery have brass shoulder-scales, 
like the dragoons. Cossack artillery wear the Cossack dress. 

Sappers. — Same uniform as the foot artillery, except that the buttons 
are white and the belts black. 

Gendarmes. — Dragoon helmet; light blue coat and pants ; white but- 
tons ; white gauntlets. 

The train. — Gray uniform, with blue facings; red shoulder-straps; 
white buttons and belts. Officers' servants wear the uniform of the train. 

INSPECTIONS. 

Independently of special inspections by staff officers, every regiment is 
inspected once a month by its colonel, as often by the general of brigade, 
3 or 4 times a year by the general of division, and once each year by the 
general commanding the army corps. 

At the inspections by the general officers, after the inspection under 
urms, the men are assembled without the officers, and are then asked 
whether they have any complaints to make. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



109 



The aides of tlie emperor, of the minister of war, &c., are frequently 
sent to make unexpected inspections of distant establishments. 

QUARTERS. 

They are comfortable, and kept in good order. 

The men have wooden or iron bunks; single iron bunks are being 
generally introduced. Each man is provided with a straw mattress and 
pillow, and one or more blankets, according to the season ; the bedding 
belongs to the barracks, and not to the men, so that none of it accom- 
panies the men when they change quarters. In the quarters of bands, &c., 
are tables and chairs. 

The wooden bunks are provided with drawers ; there is a shelf and rack 
over the head of each bed ; the arms in racks along the walls. In quar- 
ters, there are always sergeants and privates of the day on duty, with side- 
arms. Some of the quarters, especially in new barracks for the special 
arms, have separate mess-rooms. 

In the new barracks, and in some of the old, arrangements for the 
ablutions of the men are provided in the building. 

The officers' quarters are generally good, and are, to a certain extent, 
provided with furniture by the government. 

The cavalry quarters are sometimes over the stables. 



TENTS. 

The annexed sketch represents 
a vertical section through the 
centre of a tent; they are square, 
with a pyramidal roof. They are 
supported by a centre pole, and a 
short pole at each angle of the 
roof. When the arms are taken 
inside the tent, they are tied 
around the centre pole. 

In permanent camps the men have a plank banquette bed, and usually 
dig a cellar 3' deep, banking up around the tent with the earth thus 
obtained. 

A tent is pitched by 5 men in 3 minutes. The allowance of tents is : 
1 for each field officer, 1 for every two company officers, 1 for every 15 
non-commissioned officers and privates, whether of infantry or cavalry. 




HOSPITALS. 

As these will be fully considered in the report of another member of 
the commission, it will be sufficient to record he'e my opinion that the 



110 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

best Russian military hospitals are, for comfort, convenience, and clean- 
liness, the model hospitals of the world. 

In all of them the utmost order and cleanliness are preserved, and the 
greatest attention is paid to the sick. 

The command, control of the police, and responsibility, are always vested 
in an officer of the line, who has other officers as assistants; the surgeons 
have merely to prescribe, order the diet, &c., but have not the slightest 
military authority or responsibility. I would call attention to this system 
as being eminently worthy of consideration, in the event of the establish- 
ment of large temporary hospitals during a war, or any concentration of 
a large number of troops. 

THE ARTEL. 

This is a species of company fund, belonging in common to all the non- 
commissioned officers and men of the company. It is formed by certain 
regular stoppages of pay, extra allowances, and the produce of extra labor 
by the men, whether for civilians, as sap guards, &c., or otherwise. These 
extra labors are encouraged wherever circumstances permit, and the whole 
product is turned into the artel. By means of this fund the men are 
provided with vegetables, salt, extra meat, oatmeal, cleaning-utensils, 
wagons and horses for the transportation of the company provisions, &c. 

It is only when the soldier leaves the service that he receives his share 
of the fund ; this individual share is stated to amount sometimes to more 
than $100. 

The artel is divided into two parts, or funds : one serving to provide 
for the current wants of the men, the other to pay them their share upon 
leaving. 

The management and application of the artel are intrusted to sergeants 
and privates elected by the company. 

One of these men makes the daily purchases for the mess, &c., being 
always accompanied and watched by two others, whose duty it is to protect 
the interests of the company. 

A monthly report is made to the captain. 

RATIONS. 

The daily ration consists of 22- pounds of bread, half a pound of fresh 
meat, salt, oatmeal, cabbage, and brandy. The bread, the brandy, and 
one-half the meat, are furnished by the government, that is to say, always 
issued in kind; the rest of the ration is purchased by means of the artel; 
the daily sum allowed to the artel for this purpose varies with circum- 
stances. 

The Russian soldier has, habitually, three meals per day : 1 Breakfast, 
simply of bread and salt, with a little brandy. 2. Dinner, at 11 o'clock, 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. HI 

of bread aud soup, made of meat, cabbage, &c. 3. Supper, at 4 o'clock, 
of bread and soup, or oatmeal porridge. The bread is brown; both it and 
the soup are coarse and acid, but they are nutritious and plentiful; the 
acidity is agreeable to the taste of the Russian. 

In permanent camps, and in barracks, the cooking is by company, in 
large boilers. The baking is done by men detailed permanently. 

In barracks the men usually eat in their own rooms, but they some- 
times have mess-rooms ; in permanent camps messing-places are provided 
in rear of the kitchens, the seats and table being sodded banks of earth, 
with a roof of boughs or thatching. 

Each man has a wooden spoon, and there is a soup-bowl for every G 
men, out of which they eat in common. 

No portable ovens are carried on the march. 

Where it is possible, bakers are sent on two days in advance to bake 
in the ordinary ovens of the villages ; if this cannot be done, they either 
carry flour and bake it in temporary ovens of wattling, covered with 
clay, or else issue biscuit. 

In the field a small copper kettle, without cover, is carried for every 
three men. 

PAY. 

The circumstances in which the Russian troops are placed are so totally 
difi^erent from those of our own army as to render entirely useless any 
attempt at a comparison of the respective amounts of pay. 

It will be sufficient to state that the pay of the Russian army is very ^ 
low, and that the principle is recognized of increasing the pay, of both 
officers and men, in proportion to the importance, difficulty, and danger 
of the service performed. '^ 

The captains of squadrons, companies, &c., are responsible for the 
arms, accoutrements, spare clothing, &c., of their commands. 

As the militia was a peculiar body, and not a part of the regular organ- 
ization, but a new feature called forth by the exigencies of the late war, 
it is deemed best not to include it in the foregoing general description of 
the military establishment. 

It will be described in the chapter on the Russian infantry, which 
seems to be its appropriate place. 



112 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 




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116 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE INSTRUCTION AND TACTICS OF CAVALRY. 

The Russian cavalry tactics comprise the following schools, or divi- 
sions of instruction : 1. The school of the recruit, divided into : a. 
Manage, or individual equitation; h. Drill in single rank; c. Sabre, 
lance, carbine, and pistol exercise. 2. The school of the platoon. 3. 
School of the squadron. 4. School of the regiment. 5. Evolutions of 
the line. As supplements to these, are the regulations for service in 
garrison and in the field ; the latter being divided into regulations for 
field service during peace, and those for time of war. 

It is proposed to give in this chapter sufficiently copious extracts from 
the tactics to explain the system of instruction and its peculiarities. The 
sabre exercise is presented in full. The subjects are presented in the 
order in which they occur in the tactics ; those portions being omitted 
which are neither new nor interesting. Although generally condensing 
the text, I have endeavored to preserve the spirit and language of the 
original Russian. 

T. SCHOOL OF THE RECRUIT. 

The instruction of the recruits is presumed to require nine months ; 
immediately after joining the regiment or depot, they are placed under 
the charge of monitors, selected from among the most steady and in- 
telligent old soldiers. 

1st month. The recruits are taught certain religious duties and the 
obligations of their new vocation. . The monitors impress upon them the 
advantages of irreproachable conduct, and the consequences of negligence, 
evil disposition, and crime. They are made acquainted with all parts of 
a soldier's uniform, how to wear, and keep it in order. 

2d month. They are taugkt how to clean a horse j are made acquainted 
with the names, object, and manner of using the different parts of the 
horse equipment; are taught how to place the saddle, (without the pack,) 
first on a wooden horse, afterwards on the animal itself; to clean their 
arms and take them to pieces ; and they commence chanting the signals. 

ScZ month. They are taught the first principles of dismounted drill, 
beginning with the facings and marching; to load without the motions; 
the j>'/-i;K(jjZfs of the skirmish drill, and of duty at the advanced posts, 
whether on foot or mounted, according to the following system : — 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 117 

1. The instruction commences with the signals and the movements of 
skirmishers without arms ; when they have learned to load without the 
motions, their fii-e-arms are given to them when learning the duties of 
advanced posts. 

2. The most simple signals, such as " common time," '■'■ right turn," 
&c., are employed at first, afterwards passing to the more difficult. 

3. In all the lessons the proper progression is observed, never advancing 
to any new lesson until all that precedes is comprehended. 

4. After a certain amount of preliminary instruction, the recruits are 
divided into classes, or squads, according to their progress. 

5. In the more advanced squads, the recruits will have their positions 
in the ranks changed, that they may learn the duties of all positions. 

6. To complete the instruction in the duties of advanced posts, squads 
will be placed in front of each other, that the men may understand the 
position of the enemy and the manner of applying what they have been 
taught. 

4//i month. The instruction of the preceding month is continued by 
drilling the recruits, on foot, at the rank and platoon drill for mounted 
troops. At the beginning of this mouth they are taught the first prin- 
ciples of equitation with the snafile, each man always having the same 
quiet, well-broken horse. The men are not required to maintain a correct 
seat in the first lessons, and the observation of the principles is insisted 
upon only when they can sit the horse without fear of falling off, and have 
acquired a certain amount of self-confidence. 

bth month. Equitation with the snafile is continued. The men are 
taught the facings and marching on foot with arms ; the use of arms on 
foot, beginning with the sabre, then passing to the fire-arms, and finally 
to the lance — for troops armed with that weapon. 

Qth month. The instruction in taking apart and putting together the 
fire-arms is completed. Equitation with the curb, without arms, is com- 
menced by all sufficiently instructed *in riding with the snaffle. They 
are at the same time taught the manner of bitting a horse, packing the 
valise and cartridge-box, and saddling up with the complete pack. 

Ith month. Equitation with the curb, with arms. 

8/^ m,onth. Full instruction in the rank, platoon, and skirmish drills, 
with arms and mounted. 

9fh month. Use of all arms, mounted. 

After this month the recruit is occupied in perfecting himself in the 
instruction prescribed for the preceding mouths. 

The progression herein prescribed is to be carefully observed ; great 
care is to be taken not to exact too great precision at first, in order not to 
disgust the recruits. Each drill should last not longer than from one 
hour to one hour and a half. Grreat care must be exercised in the choice 



118 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

of instructors, who should unite patience with knowledge, and possess the 
faculty of giving clear exjjlanations. 

During the first six months the recruits are to be instructed at least 
twice a week by the chaplain in their religious duties, such as the Lord's 
Prayer, the Ten Commandments, the Apostles' Creed, the Psalms, &c. 
In detached squadrons the religious instruction is given by the sergeants. 

MANEGE RIDING. 

This should be limited to the actual necessities of the service, and by 
the natural capacity of the horse; therefore more is required of the non- 
commissioned officers than of the privates, because the former have the 
best riding-horses. The non-commissioned ofiicers are taught — 

1. The walk. 

2. The trot : (a) the common trot, and (i) the trot out. 

3. The gallop, on either foot. 

4. The charge. 

5. To rein back. 

6. The right and left turn, right about and left about turn, in place. 

7. The passage to the right and left. 

8. The turns and abouts, at all gaits; at a gallop, both true and false 

9. To ride in circle to right and left, at all gaits. 

10. To circle back to rear on same track, at all gaits; at a gallop, both 
true and false. 

11. To change direction across the riding-hall, at all gaits. 

12. To change foot when galloping on a straight line. 

13. To leap ditches and fences. 

The privates are taught every thing prescribed above, with the following 
exceptions : they are not required to change foot at a gallop, nor to gallop 
false ; it is only at a walk and trot that they ride in circle, circle back to 
rear on the same track, and change direction in the riding-hall. Never- 
theless, the privates having the best horses should receive the instruction 
prescribed for the non-commissioned officers, as far as the strength and 
fitness of the horses and the aptness and intelligence of the men will 
permit. Commanders of troops should never require of the men more 
than is prescribed in these instructions, and should never lose sight of 
the preservation of their horses ; for a horse in good order, although less 
j)erfectly broken to the rules of manege riding, is preferable to one per- 
fectly instructed in all these rules, but broken down. 

The recruits are carried through the course indicated above, at first 
with the snaffle, afterwards with the curb. The squads are made as small 
as the available number of instructors will permit, and the movements in 
the riding-hall are few in number and simple in kind, being limited to 
those actually necessary for the purpose in view. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. HQ 



THE GAITS. 

There are tliree kinds of gaits : the walk, trot, and gallop. 

The trot is of two kinds : (a) the common trot, (b) the trot out. 

The charge is the acceleration of the gallop to the utmost power of the 
horse. 

At a walk the horse travels about 3* miles per hour ; at the common 
trot, 61; at the trot out, dh; at the gallop, 8. 

EQUITATION. 

The instructor must never allow the recruit to pass from one lesson to 
another until he fully understands and can execute all that precedes. 
When the recruit has learned how to arrange his equipment, to take care 
of a horse, to saddle and bridle him, he takes his first lessons in riding, 
on a quiet, well-broken horse. The first lessons are given with the snafile; 
the man is to be in undress uniform, without arms or accoutrements, the 
horse without schabraque, but with a surcingle ; in the first lessons with 
the curb the reci*uit is without arms or accoutrements, then with both, and 
finally with the schabraque and full pack. In the beginning the recruit 
is required to ride with stirrups somewhat shorter than the proper length, 
that he may acquire confidence and firmness in his seat, without which 
the fear of falling from his horse renders him inattentive to the explana- 
tions of the instructor. In the course of time, as he progresses, the 
stirrups are lengthened, and finally he is required to ride without them, 
until he acquires a perfectly firm seat; then he is again obliged to ride 
with stirrups an inch too long, and is thus, in the course of several 
lessons, brought by degrees to the prescribed length. 

It is necessary to explain to the recruit that he should not press hard 
upon the stirrups, or thrust them forward, but allow them to hang ver- 
tically; also, that the bottom of the stirrup should never be under the 
hollow of the foot, but that the first joint of the great toe should be 
against the inner side of the stirrup ; in other words, the ball of the foot 
rests on the stirrup. Spurs are given to the recruit when he is fully con- 
firmed in his seat, with and without stirrups. 

THE SEAT. 

The body of the rider is divided into three parts, of which two are 
movable and one immovable : one of the first consists of all the upper 
part of the body, down to the waist, the other of the lower part of the 
legs, from the knee down ; the immovable portion is from the waist 
to the knees. (Fig. 5.) The cavalry soldier should sit square on the 
middle of the saddle, the upper part of the body presenting a free and 
unconstrained appearance, the chest not much thrown forward, the ribs 



120 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



resting freely on the hips, the waist and loins not stiffened, and thus 
not exposed to tension or effort from the motions of the horse; the upper 
part of the body should lean slightly to the rear, rather than forward ; 
the thighs, inclining a little forward, lie flat and firmly on the saddle, 




covering the surcingle, of which only a small part, behind the knee, 
should be seen ; the lower part of the leg, hanging vertically from the 
knees, touches the horse, but without the slightest pressure j the toes are 
pointed up, without constraint, and on the same line with the knees, for, 
if the toes are turned outward, it not only causes the horse to be unneces- 
sarily pricked by the spurs, (especially when marching in line,) but the 
firmness of the seat is lost; the heels should be i (seven-eighths) of an 
inch below the toes, and the stirrups so adjusted that, when the rider 
raises himself on them, there may be the breadth of four fingers between 
the crotch and the saddle; to make this adjustment, when the recruit 
has acquired a firm and correct seat, he should, without changing that 
seat, push the bottom of the stirrup to the hollow of the foot, and then, 
with the foot horizontal, feel a slight support from the stirrup ; when 
this is accomplished, he replaces the foot properly in the stirrup, and the 
heel will then be i of an inch below the toes. 

To give the recruit a correct seat, the instructor, having caused him to 
mount, seizes the lower part of his leg, and stretches it straight towards 
the fore-quarters of the horse, so as to bring the buttocks of the rider 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



121 



square on the saddle ; then, resting one hand on the man's knee, he 
seizes the lowei* part of the leg with the other, and carries back the 
thigh and knee so as to bring the crotch square on the saddle, the thighs 
covering the surcingle, the lower part of the leg, from the knee down, 
also over the surcingle, and sees that the recruit does not sit too much 
on his crotch, but has his buttocks well under him. He then explains to 
the recruit that the firmness of the seat consists in this : that the rider 
grasps the horse with his legs ; 

that both thighs press equally ^'S- 6. 

upon the saddle, in conformity 
with the movements of the body; 
and that the general movements 
of the body and thighs must 
conform to those of the horse. 
To spare the horses, and explain 
more readily to the recruit the 
principles of the seat, he should 
at first sit upon a wooden horse, 
on which /a saddle is secured, 
(Fig. 6;) on this he should 
learn to carry the thighs back, 
without leaning the body for- 
ward ; at the same time he is 
taught how to hold the feet, 
without allowing him to place them in the stirrups, for this is one of the 
most essential conditions for a good seat. 




Fig. 7. 



Fig. 8. 




Position of the hands and arms when riding with the snaffle. 

Both arms free, and without the slightest stifi"ness in the shoulders ; 
the elbows bent; the upper part of the arms a little forward of the ver- 



122 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

tical; the forearms resting against the sides, without pressure; both 
hands raised a little above the elbows, but not higher than the eyes of 
the horse ; the hands five or six fingers' breadth apart, the outer hand 
higher than the inner; the units on the prolongation of the forearms; 
the thumbs on top, and not turned inwards ; the manner of holding the 
reins is shown in Figs. 7 and 8. 

Position of the hands and arms when riding icith the cxirh. — (Fig- 5.) 

The left arm free, and without the slightest stiifness ; the elbow bent, 
and on the vertical line from the shoulder to the hip; the forearm 
touches the side, without pressure; the hand in the prolongation of the 
forearm, and two or three fingers' breadth above the pommel ; the curb- 
reins pass upward through the hand, and over the forefinger, covered by 
all the four fingers, the nails opposite the bottom of the jacket, and in 
such a position that the rider can see the little-finger nail by casting his 
eyes on the hand ; the snaffle-reins pass over the forefinger, and down- 
wards through the hand, lying flat in the hollow of the hand; the thumb 
presses on top of the reins; the right hand rests, with the knuckles, on 
the seam of the pants, on the right thigh, seven inches below the hip, 
the fist closed, except the thumb, which lies on the seam, pointing 
upwards ; the elbow on the line of the shoulders. 

For the lessons with the snaffle, the horse is conducted to the ground 
without passing the reins over his head, they are passed over just before 
placing the left foot in the stirrup ; in the lessons with the curb, the 
horse is conducted to the ground with the reins already passed over the 
neck ; in both cases the reins are held in the left hand while mounting. 

In the first lessons with the curb, the curb-chain is hooked on the 
ground, under the direction of the instructor; it is of such a length that 
two fingers may be laid flat between it and the chin. 

All individual turns and abouts, from a halt, are made by turning the 
horse on his hind-legs as a pivot; in wheels by platoon, or by squadron, 
on a fixed pivot, the pivot-man turns in this manner. Turns on a march 
are made on an arc with a radius of three yards. 

THE DRILL IN SINGLE RANK. 
This is commenced when the men are well instructed in the individual 
riding drill; from six to fifteen men are formed in one rank, with a 
non-commissioned officer or old soldier on each flank. The recruits first 
execute this drill on foot, and are not required to execute it on horseback 
until they understand its principles fully. When mounted, the men are 
at first placed two yards apart, and as they progress the files are closed 
in, until they touch stirrups, towards the guide. The instruction is 
commenced in open order, to accustom each man to observe the rules for 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 123 

moving straiglit forward, to oblige him to conduct his horse independ- 
ently of his neighbor, and to force him to pay more attention ; for, in 
close order, the men, by blindly following the movements of their com- 
rades, might execute many movements satisfactorily without understand- 
ing them, and it would be impossible for the instructor to ascertain the 
proficiency and progress of each man. Every movement should be 
executed first at a walk, afterwards at the other gaits. The recruits ' 
should be mixed with old soldiers in the ranks, to prevent mistakes from 
extending through the whole rank ; but the instructor must watch care- 
fully that the old soldiers do not prompt the recruits. 

At the commencement of every drill in single rank, the recruits should 
be required to execute some of the lessons of the individual drill ; so that 
correctness of riding, and facility of executing the movements in close 
order, may always be preserved. 

The single rank drill comprises all the movements of the platoon drill 
that can be executed in one rank. 

THE USE OF THE SABRE. 

This is one of the most important elements in the instruction of the 
cavalry soldier ; for the sabre is the arm common to all cavalry. 

The recruit should go through the whole exercise not less than once a 
week. 

The rules for the use of the sabre are divided into two parts : (a) the 
manual ; (h) the sabre exercise. 

The use of the sabre is taught by means of commands and numbers. 
The commands of execution are called times, and these times are sub- 
divided into particular movements called motions. At the commence- 
ment of the instruction, the instructor calls the numbers and executes 
the motions himself; when the recruit becomes accustomed to the use of 
the weapon, he is obliged to execute the motions and call the numbers 
simultaueously with the instructor; after that, the recruit calls the num- 
bers and executes the motions for himself; finally, he executes the 
motions without calling the numbers. 

The use of the sabre is first taught to single men on foot, then by 
uniting several men, and finally on horseback. 

THE SABRE MANUAL. 

This is so similar to that in use in the United States service as to ren- 
der it unnecessary to describe it in this report, with the exception of two 
peculiarities, viz.: when the sabre is at a carry, both the little finger and 
that next to it are outside of the gripe ; there is a position of reversed 
sabre, for funerals, as follows : the blade passed between the left arm and 
the body, point to the rear, edge to the left, the flat of the blade resting 



124 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



on tlie lef*^ forearm, close to the guard, the gripe held lightly by the 
right hand, the blade horizontal. 

THE SABRE EXERCISE, 

This is divided into two parts, the first in open order, the second in 
close order. The first part is subdivided into : (a) the sabre exercise /or 
the attacJc ; (6) that ybr the retreat. 

I. THE SABRE EXERCISE IN OPEN ORDER. 

A. In the attack. 

The instruction should be at first given to single men, or small squads, 
on foot ; aftervrards, in the same manner, mounted ; first at a halt, then 
in motion — i.e. first at a walk, then at a trot, gallop, and charge. 

The use of the sabre on foot forms no part of the duty of a cavalry 
soldier, and is given only as preparatory to its use on horseback, which is 
its proper object. 

Fig. 9. 




Fig. 10, 



Fig. 11. 




Guard. 

In giving the instruction, it should be explained that the following 
movements constitute the basis of the system : 1, the moulinets ; 2, one 
thrust; 3, three cuts; 4, four parries; all the other movements given are 
merely combinations or modifications of these. 

In the motions of the sabre, it is, as a general rule, grasped by the 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY, 125 

right liand, the four fingers encircling the gripe, the thumb on the oppo- 
site side, resting oh the forefinger, (fig. 9 ;) but if the soldier is to thrust, 
he places the thumb on the back of the gripe, the end of the thumb 
against the guard. 

All the motions are made from the position of " guard." 
The recruit being at a carry, to cause him to assume the position of 
guard, the instructor commands : 

GUARD. — 1 time. 

(.Fig. 10.) Carry the right hand about 10 inches in front of the right 
hip, the blade in an oblique position, the point a little raised, the edge 
upwards, the back of the blade resting in the hollow of the left arm, as 
near the body as possible. In this position the right hand should be 
without the slightest efibrt or constraint, and should not feel the weight 
of the sabre, which is supported by the left arm. 

(Fig. 11.) In the instruction on foot it is necessary to give the recruit 
a position corresponding to that on horseback; therefore, at the command, 
guard, he carries his right foot 18 inches from the left, the heels on the 
same line, the weight of the body supported equally on both legs, which 
are a little bent at the knees ; at the same time he moves his left forearm 
and hand to the front, placing them as if holding the reins when mounted, 
and holds the right hand and sabre as already prescribed. This position, 
once taken, is maintained during the whole lesson. 

The recruit returns to a carry, as in the United States sabre exercise, 
except that when at a carry both the little finger and that next to it are 
outside of the gripe. 

THE MOULINETS. 

The lessons in the sabre exercise are commenced with the moulinets, 
for the following reasons : 1, they accustom the men to the circular move- 
ments of the edge of the sabre, necessary in all the motions ; 2, they give 
to the hand the strength and address necessary for handling the sabre; 
3, they accustom the horses to the sabre. 

PEEPARE TO MOULINET. — 1 time. 

(Fig. 12.) At this command, the recruit, being at guard, extends the 
right arm to its full length, at the same time raising it so as to bring 
the hand in front of the centre of the head, as high as the eyes, point 
to the front, edge upwards, blade horizontal, and perpendicular to the 
breast. 

All the moulinets are made from the position just described, and upon 
their completion the position of guard is resumed. 

The moulinets are made to the left and to the right : i.e. the circular 



126 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



Fis;. 12.— The moulinets. 




movemeni of the sabre passes on the left or on the right side of the 

horse's neck. 

There are two moulinets : 
the first passes downwards 
along the body ; tJie second 
passes upwards along the 
body. 

The recruit being in the 
position of "j^repare tu 
viotih'nef," to execute the 
first moulinet, the instructor 
commands : 

FIRST MOULINET. 

Make a moulinet to the 
left, — i.e. on the left side of 
the horse's neck, — raising 
the blade with the edge 
towards the body, the cir- 
cular motion passing downwards along the left shoulder; and after that, 
make a right moulinet, — i.e. on the right side of the horse's neck, — raising 
the point, the edge towards the body, and the circular movement passing 
downwards along the right shoulder; then another moulinet to the left, 
then again to the right, and, in the same manner, alternately on each 
side, until the command, guard, when the position of guard is resumed. 
The recruit being in the position of "jircpare to moulinet," to cause him 
to execute the second moulinet, the instructor commands : 

SECOND MOULINET. 

Make a moulinet to the right, turning the wrist a little outwards, 
lowering the point, edge from the body, and passing the blade upwards, 
along the right shoulder ; then make a similar moulinet to the left ; and 
continue in the same manner, alternately on each side, until the command, 
guard. 

In the execution of the moulinets neither the elbow nor shoulder should 
bend, but the movement is to be eifected by the hand and wrist alone; 
the sabre should pass as far as possible from the horse's head, to avoid 
striking him, and as near as possible to the man's shoulder; the left arm 
is not moved. 

At the commencement the instructor requires the recruit to count one 
at the end of each left moulinet, tioo at the end of each right moulinet, 
or the reverse ; finally requiring him to accelerate the motion of the sabre 
to the utmost. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY, 



127 



THE BLOWS. 

Blows are of two kinds, thrusts and cuts. 

They may be given in four directions : 1. To the i-ight front, i.e. 
against an antagonist obliquely in front of the right shoulder; 2. To the 
te/t front; 3. To the right; 4. To the left. 

The thrusts and cuts should always be given together, i.e. first a thrust 
and then a cut. After each blow the position of guard is resumed. 

For the blow to the right /rout, the instructor commands : 

RIGHT FRONT THRUST AND CUT. 1 time, 4 motions. 

Fig. 13. Right front thrust. Fig. 14. 




1. At the last part of the command, which is, ctit, turn the eyes to the 
right front, raise the hand to the height of the right ear, and seven inches 
from it, the shoulder and elbow thrown well back, the thumb on the back 
of the gripe, point falling a little below the horizontal, and directed to the 
right front, edge upwards. (Fig. 13.) 

2. Extend the arm rapidly to its full length, thrusting to the right 
front, i.e. somewhat to the right of the horse's right ear; at the end of 
the thrust the right arm and the sabre are horizontal ; the point, if any 
thing, a little below the horizontal. (Fig. 14.) 

3. Without moving the arm, replace the thumb on the side of the 
gripe, turn the hand so as to bring the nails upwards, at the same time 
carrying the point well to the right; then, by a turn of the wrist, cut 
horizontally from right to left. 

4. Turn the nails downwards, and by a turn of the wrist cut hori- 
zontally from left to right. At once resume the position of guard. 



LEFT FRONT THRUST AND CUT. — 1 firne, 4 motions. 

(Figs. 15 and 16.) Executed as the preceding blow, with the following 
differences : in the 1st motion the arm is raised as prescribed for the blow 



128 



THE ARMIES OF EUROTE. 



to the right front, but the point and eyes are directed to the left front; 
in the 2d motion, thrust to the left front, i.e. somewhat to the left of the 
Tig. 15. Left front thrust. Tig. 16. 




horse's left ear ; the 3d and 4th motions, as in the blow to the right front, 
but given on the left side of the horse's head. 

RIGHT THRUST AND CUT. — 1 time, 4 motions. 
Fig. 17. Right thrust. Fig. 18. 





(Figs. 17 and IS.) 1. At the last part of the command, which is, cut, 
half face to the right in the saddle, at the same time place the arm and 
sabre in the position of first motion of right front blow, except that the 
eyes and point are directed to the right. 

2. Thrust to the right, in a direction as nearly as possible perpendicular 
to the side of the horse. 

3 and 4. As in the blow to the right front, except that the cuts are 
made in a direction to the right of the horse, and that, on resuming the 
guard, the recruit will sit straight in the saddle. 

LEFT THRUST AND CUT. — 1 time, 4 motions. 

Executed as the preceding blow, with the difference that it is made on 
the left side of the horse ; therefore, in the first motion the recruit makes 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



129 



a half face to the left in his saddle, and directs his eyes and point to the 
left, in a direction perpendicular to his horse ; in the third and fourth 
motions he gives the horizontal cuts, as in the last blow, but on the left, 
and finally returns to the guard, resuming his seat square in the saddle. 

THE PARRIES. 

The parries are all made from the position of guard. After every 
parry the position of guard is at once resumed, unless it is to be followed 
at once by a cut or thrust. 

There are four parries : (a) that for the right side, or the i-ir/hf j^ctr?-^; 
(b) that for the left side, or left parry ; (c) that for the head, or head 
parrij ; (jl^ that for the left shoulder and rear, or left rear parry. 

RIGHT PARRY. — 1 time, 2 motions. 

(Fig. 19.) 1. Grasp the sabre firmly, extend the arm to the right, the 
hand moving horizontally, the point at the same time describing a semi- 
circle upwards, and, with the edge to the right, parry as strongly as pos- 
sible the blow aimed at the right side. 

2. Resume the position of guard. 



Fig. 19.— Right parry. 



Fig. 20. — Left parry. 





LEFT PARRY. — 1 time, 2 mofion.f. 

(Fig. 20.) 1. Raise the hand above, and about seven inches in front of, 
the eyes, the elbow somewhat bent, edge to the left, point downwards, 
and about fourteen inches outside of the horse's left shoulder, and parry 
as strongly as possible the blow aimed at the left side. 

2. Return to the position of guard. 

HEAD PARRY. — 1 time, 2 motions. 

(Fig. 21.) 1. Raise the arm quickly to its full length, the hand a little 
to the right, the sabre a little above the head, edge upwards, blade hori- 
zontal and parallel to the shoulders. 

2. Resume the guard. 



130 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



In this parry the sabre should be grasped with the utmost firmness, to 
prevent its being beaten down. 



Fig. 21. — Head parry. 




Fig. 22. — Left rear parry. 




LEFT REAR PARRY. — 1 time, 2 motions. 

(Fig. 22.) 1. Turn the head to the left and rear, carry the right hand to 
the left shoulder, on which rest the back of the blade, the point to the 
left rear, the edge upwards. 

2. Resume the guard. 

PARRIES AND BLOWS. 

When the recruit is well instructed in the blows and parries separately, 
he should be taught to combine them, in the following manner : — 

RIGHT PARRY AND CUT. — 1 time, 2 motions. 

1. Parry to the right, as already explained. 

2. Cut once horizontally from right to left, as prescribed in the third 
motion of the blow to the right front, and resume the guard. 

LEFT PARRY AND CUT. — 1 time, 2 motions. 

1. Parry to the left, as already explained. 

2. Cut once horizontally from right to left, as prescribed in the third 
motion of the blow to the left front, and resume the guard. 

HEAD PARRY AND THRUST. 1 time, 3 motions. 

1. Parry for the head, as already explained. 

2. Place the arm and sabre in the position of the 1st motion of blow 
to right front. 

3. Thrust to right front, and resume the guard. 

THE BLOWS AGAINST INFANTRY. 

The cavalry soldier, when engaged against infantry, in open order, 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY, 



131 



should endeavor to parry the bayonet on his right side, cut to the right 
and left, and thrust to the right. 

AGAINST INFANTRY — RIGHT PARRY AND CUT. — 1 time, 3 motions. 

(Figs. 23 and 24.) 1. Half face to the right in the saddle, carry the 
right hand to the right and rear, arm nearly extended, sabre grasped 

Against infantry. — Right parry. 



Fig. 23 





firmly, hand as high as the head, and over the croup of the horse ; nails 
outwards, edge to the rear, point upwards, blade vertical. 

2. Lower the point towards the rear, and parry the bayonet with the 
back of the blade by a rapid circular movement of the sabre and arm, so 
that, at the end of the movement, the right hand may be in front of the 
left shoulder as high as the head, and 10 inches from it, the nails towards 
the breast, point of sabre upwards, edge to the front. 

3. Bear the weight of the body on the right stirrup, bend the body 
well down to the right, and, by a movement of the whole arm from the 
shoulder, cut downwards, from the head of the horse towards the croup; 
at once resume the guard. 

AGAINST INFANTRY LEFT CUT. — 1 time, 1 motion. 

(Fig. 25.) Half face to the left in the saddle, extend the right arm to 

its full length, the hand opposite to and above the eyes, edge somewhat 

to the left, the point a little to the front; then, by a movement of the 

whole arm from the shoulder, cut circularly downwards, on the left side 

of the horse ; at once resume the guard. 

9 



132 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



AGAINST INFANTRY — RIGHT AND LEFT CUT. — 1 time, 2 motions. 

1. Half face to the right in the saddle, and take the position described 
at the end of 2d motion of the "right parry and cut" against infantry, 
and at once cut against infantry, as prescribed in the 3d motion. 

2. Instead of resuming the guard, at once half face to the left, and 
act as prescribed for the left cut against infantry ; resume the guard. 



Fig. 25. — Against infantry. 
— Left cut. 




Fig. 26. — Against infantry. 
— Right thrust. 




AGAINST INFANTRY — RIGHT CUT AND THRUST. 1 time, 2 motions. 

(Fig. 26.) 1. Half face to the right in the saddle, and act as directed 
in the first motion of the preceding blow. 

2. Bear the weight on the right stirrup, bend well down to the right, 
extend the right arm well downwards, and, with the back of the sabre 
upwards, thrust forward as nearly horizontally as possible; at once resume 
the guard. 

In these cuts the recruit should sit firmly in the saddle, and make the 
half faces to the right and left quickly, easily, and without constraint. 

B. The sabre exercise for the retreat. 

In retreat the cavalry soldier should cut his pursuer to the right rear. 

RIGHT REAR CUT. — 1 time, 1 motion. 

(Fig. 27.) Half face to the right in the saddle, cast the eyes well to 
the right rear, raise the right arm so as to bring the hand opposite to and 
at the height of the left shoulder, edge to the front, point upwards, cut 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



13^ 



horizontally to the rear by a movement of the sabre from left to right ; 
at once resume the 2;uard. 



Fig. 27. — Right rear cut. 



Fig. 28. — Charge sabre. 




RIGHT REAR — CUT TWICE. 

As the last blow, except that the cut is repeated before resuming the 
position of guard. 

TO FORM A SQUADRON FOR THE SABRE EXERCISE. 

Preparatory to the sabre exercise, the squadron, whether mounted or 
on foot, should first of all be ordered to call ofi". For this purpose the 
instructor commands : 

FOR SABRE EXERCISE — CALL OFF. 

At this command, each man of the right file turns his head to the left, 
that his comrades may hear him, and, in a loud, distinct tone, calls out 
20, (twenty;) the men of the 2d file call out 15; those of the 3d file, 
10; the 4th, 5; the 5th, " stand fast ;" the 6th, 20; the 7th, 15; the 
8th, 10; the 9th, 5; the 10th, '^ stand fast;" and in the same manner 
through the squadron to its left flank. 

These numbers signify that at the command " sabre exercise — march," 
(which will be explained hereafter,) each man is to march forward the 
number of paces he called out, i.e. 20, 15, 10, and 5 paces, respectively, 
for the first four men of every five, the fifth standing fast. The non- 
commissioned officers in the front rank are to move forward 25 paces ; 
those in the rear rank are to rein back into the line of file-closers, and 
with them fall back 5 paces behind the rear rank. Each man turns his 
head to the front as soon as he has called ofi". If the sabre exercise is to 



134 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

be performed in presence of an inspector, the calling off is done before 
his arrival. When the exercise is to be commenced, the front rank is 
marched forward 25 paces ; the instructor then commands : 

SABRE EXERCISE MARCH. 

At this command the men take their distances by moving forward, in each 
rank, the number of paces they respectively called off, as already explained. 
When the exercise is finished, the instructor commands : 

TO YOUR POSTS — MARCH. 

At this command, the men who advanced 20 paces stand fast, the 
others move up, and dress on them in each rank. 

The non-commissioned officers of the front rank rein back 5 paces into 
their places. The instructor then closes ranks by the usual commands. 

During the exercise the officers place themselves 15 paces from the 
front rank, facing it. 

THE SABRE EXERCISE IN CLOSE ORDER.^ 

When attacking in close order, the sabre should always be carried in 
the position of charge sabre. 

CHARGE SABRE. — 1 time, 1 motion. 

(Fig. 28.) Raise the right arm and extend it to the front, the hand 
opposite the right eye, the blade perpendicular to the breast, the edge 
upwards, the point a little raised. 

To pass from this position to that of guard, the command is, guard. 
If necessary, the command, carri/ sabres, may be given at once, without 
first coming to the guard. 

In close order, all the motions of the sabre are made from the position 
of charge sabre, and on the completion of every movement the men at 
once return to that position. 

RIGHT FRONT THRUST, PARRY, AND CUT. — 1 time, 4 motions. 

1 and 2. The recruit, being in the position of charge sabre, at once 
thrusts to the right front, as prescribed in open order. 

3. Makes the head parry, as in open order. 

4. Cuts vertically downward, on the right of the horse's neck, and 
resumes the position of charge sabre. 

LEFT FRONT CUT, PARRY, AND THRUST. — 1 time, 4 motions. 

1. Commence the cut by the 2d motion of the 2d moulinet : i.e. lower 
the sabre along the left side of the horse's neck, raise it along the left 
shoulder, cut downwards to the left front, and resume the position of 
charge sabre. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



135 



2. Make the head parry. 

3 and 4. Thrust to the right front, and resume the position of charge 
sabre. 

RIGHT AND LEFT FRONT THRUST. 1 time, 2 motions. 

1. Thrust once to the right front. 

2. Thrust once to the left front, and resume the position of charge 
sabre. 

In close ordei', too much care cannot be taken to make the cuts by the 
wrist alone, without moving the arm; they should be made as near the 
horse's neck as possible, to avoid striking the next man, or his horse. 

As a conclusion to the sabre exercise, all the commands are here given, 
in the order in which they should be taught. 



Commands for the 
Guard. 

Prepare to moulinet. 
First moulinet. 
Guard. 

Prepare to moulinet. 
Second moulinet. 
Guard. 

Right front thrust and cut. 
Left front thrust and cut. 
Right thrust and cut. 
Left thrust and cut. 
Right parry. 



sabre exercise in open order. 
Left parry. 
Head parry. 
Left rear parry. 
Right parry and cut. 
Left parry and cut. 
Head parry and thrust. 
Against infantry — right parry and cut. 
Against infantry — left cut. 
Against infantry — right and left cut. 
Against infantry — right cut and thrust. 
Right rear cut. 
Right rear cut twice. 



Commands for the sabre exercise in close order. 
Charge sabre. Left front cut, parry, and thrust. 

Right front thrust, parry, and cut. Right and left front thrust. 

MISCELLANEOUS, FROM THE SCHOOL OP THE RECRUIT. 

(Fig. 29.) When loading and firing the car 



bine, the snaffle-reins are knotted around the 
curb-reins, and allowed to hang loosely; the 
curb-reins are passed around the middle finger 
of the left hand, thus leaving the others free to 
manage the carbine. 

When the carbine is cast about, the butt is 
thrown on the right side of the horse, the left 
hand seizing it just above the tail-band. 

Skirmishers armed with lances, when using 
the carbine, carry lances at a rest and sabres in 



Fig. 29.— Manner of hold- 
ing the reins when using the 
carbine. 




136 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

the scabbards; skirmishers who have no lances have the sabre drawn 
and suspended from the right wrist by the sabre-knot when using their 
carbines. 

THE CHARGE, 

At the command, charge, the rider, without changing his seat, presses 
a little harder on the stirrups, throws the weight of his body backwards, 
and prepares the horse, as explained, for the gallop; then, giving him a 
free rein, he urges him to his greatest speed by the pressure of his legs 
and spurs. 

SCHOOL OF THE PLATOON. 

In the tactics, the platoon is supposed to consist of 12 or more files, 
always in two ranks. The rear rank is one pace (3 feet) from the front 
rank, and the file-closers at the same distance behind the rear rank. 

In addition to the 12 files, there are supposed to be with the platoon 
1 ofiicer as instructor, 1 non-commissioned officer on each flank of the 
front rank, 2 non-commissioned ofiicers as file-closers, and 1 trumpeter. 

Preparatory to mounting, the platoon being formed with closed ranks, 
the men call ofi" in each rank by twos. 

At the command, pre^jare to mount, Nos. 1 of the front rank lead for- 
ward 4 paces, (of 3' each,) Nos. 2 of the rear rank, and the file-closers, 
fall back the same distance, the non-commissioned officers on the flanks 
of the front rank lead forward 8 paces. After mounting, upon the com- 
mand, /orm ranks, the Nos. 2 of each rank move up alongside of Nos. 1, 
the non-commissioned officers resume their proper places, and the rear 
rank is closed up on the front rank. 

The dismounting is efi'ected in a similar manner. 

The men, being mounted, call off" in each rank from right to left, and 
then in each rank by threes. 

Column may be formed : by file, by twos, by threes, and by sixes. 

In the column by twos, each rank consists of the men of the same file, 
each rear-rank man riding alongside of his front-rank man. 

In the column by sixes, each rank consists of the men of the same set 
of threes, the three rear-rank men riding abreast of their three front- 
rank men. 

(Fig. 30.) To break the platoon by file, from a halt: at the preparatory 
command, the right guide places himself in front of the 1st file, the 
trumpeter in front of the right guide; at the command, march, the 
trumpeter, guide, and first file move straight forward; the men of the 
other files, in succession, advance one pace, halt, turn to the right, (on 
the horse's hind-legs,) move to the right in the direction of the front of 
the platoon, and turn individually to the left when arriving behind the 
head of column. 



137 






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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 139 

Fig. 31 shows the manner of breaking by twos. 

To break by threes, the first set of threes march straight forward, the 
rest of the men wheel to the right by threes in each rank, move forward, 
and, upon arriving behind the head of column, wheel to the left by threes, 
in each rank. Fig. 32 shows the formation of a platoon of 11 files, in 
column by threes. 

Fig. 33. To break by sixes, at the preparatory command the right guide 
passages 3 yards to the right, the rear-rank men of the first set of threes 
oblique to the right and place themselves on the alignment of the front 
rank, between the right guide and their front-rank men ; at the command, 
march, the right guide and the first set of threes (formed in one rank, the 
rear-rank men on the right) move straight forward, the rest of the men 
wheel to the right by threes in each rank, move forward, and wheel to the 
left by sixes when the croups of their horses are on the prolongation of 
the left flank of the column. 

Fig. 33 shows the formation of a platoon in column by sixes, the platoon 
consisting of 11 files. 

On the march, the platoon is broken into column according to the same 
principles; except that to break by file or by twos, in doubling the gait, 
the right file moves straight forward at the new gait, and the rest of the 
platoons at once oblique to the right, each file entering the column in 
succession. 

All these movements are executed by the left flank, by inverse means. 
When the platoon, broken into column, is to form to the front, on the 
right or left, or to the right or left into line, the leading subdivision 
marches platoon distance before halting. 

The platoon being in column by file, right in front, at a halt, to form 
column by twos : at the command, march, each front-rank man moves 
forward his horse's length and halts ; each rear-rank man moves up on the 
right of his front-rank man and halts ; then the column closes up on the 
leading subdivision. 

To form from column by file into column by threes : at the command, 
march, Nos. 1 of both ranks move forward a horse's length and halt ; 
Nos. 2 and 3 of each rank oblique to the left, and form on the left of 
Nos. 1 ; then the column closes up on the leading set of threes. 

Fig. 34. To form from column by file, into column by sixes : at the com- 
mand, march, Nos. 1 of the front rank move forward a horse's length and 
halt; Nos. 2 and 3 of the same rank oblique to the left, and form on the 
left of Nos. 1, in the order of their numbers ; the rear-rank men oblique 
to the right, and form on the alignment of the front rank, also in the order 
of their numbers, from right to left ; the ranks of sixes, thus formed, then 
close up on the head of the column. 

If the column is in march, the front is increased according to the same 



140 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



principles; i.e. each new subdivision is formed at the original gait; tlien 
those in rear close up on the head of column by doubling the gait. 

The front is decreased, whether the column is in march or at a halt, in 
a manner similar to that pursued in the United States tactics. 

SCHOOL OF THE SQUADRON. 

The squadron is divided into two half squadrons and four platoons. 
The platoons are numbered from right to left, and each platoon preserves 
its original number, whatever position it may occupy in line or in column. 
Each platoon is counted off: (a) by twos; (Jj) from right to left; (c) by 
threes ; this is done under the direction of the commandants of platoons, 
before the squadron is formed. If there are odd files in the 4th platoon, 
they are posted on its right. 

COMPOSITION OF THE SQUADRON. 

The minimum strength is as follows : 1 captain, commanding ; 4 com- 
mandants of platoons; 16 sergeants; 3 trumpeters; 96 corporals and pri- 
vates. As a general rule, the average strength of the squadron is 120 
corporals and privates, or 60 files. 

POSTS OP THE OFFICERS AND SERGEANTS. 

Fig. 35. 



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Fig. 35. The squadron being deployed, the officers are posted as follows : 
the captain commanding, at platoon distance in front of the centre of the 
squadron ; the commandant of the 1st platoon, 1 pace in front of the 2d 
file from the right of his platoon ; the commandants of the 2d and 3d 
platoons, 1 pace in front of the centres of their platoons ; the commandant 
of the 4th platoon, 1 pace in front of the 2d file from the left of his pla- 
toon ; if there is a 5th subaltern, he is posted, as a file-closer, 3 paces in 
rear of the centre of the line of non-commissioned file-closers ; if there is 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



141 



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142 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



a 6tli subaltern, he is posted 1 pace in front of the 2d file from the left of 
the 1st platoon ; if there is a 7th subaltern, he is posted 1 pace in front 
of the 2d file from the right of the 4th platoon. 

Subalterns command platoons according to their ability, and not according 
to seniority ; the 1st and 4th platoons being considered the most important. 

If there are not enough officers present to supply commandants of pla- 
toons, the deficiency is made good by the most capable sergeants. 

If there is no ofiicer to act as file-closer, this position is not filled by a 
sergeant. 

Fig. 35 gives the positions of the different sei'geants in line; No. 15 is 
the standard-bearer, in standard-squadrons, and No. 16 is his assistant; in 
squadrons without standards, No. 15 is posted in rear of the 2d file from 
the left of the 2d platoon, and No. 16 in rear of the 2d file from the right 
of the 3d platoon ; the non-commissioned file-closers are 1 pace behind the 
rear rank. In standard-squadrons having but 14 sergeants, No. 13 is the 
standard-bearer, No. 14 his assistant. 

No. 6 cai'ries the squadron guidon. 

There must always be at least one file-closer for every platoon ; if there 
are not enough sergeants for this purpose, corporals are detailed to supply 
the deficiency. 

The sergeants may be posted, by the commander of the squadron, with- 
out regard to their relative rank. 

Trumpeters are posted, either in one rank, at five paces on the right of 
the rear rank, or in rear of the 4th files from the right of the 1st, 4th, and 
2d platoons ; the latter position in preference. 

In the engravings accompanying this report, extracted from the Russian 
tactics, two drummers and two trumpeters are usually represented ; these 
drummers refer only to the dragoon regiments. 

The men armed with rifled carbines, (four in each platoon,) who are to 
act as skirmishers, always form the flank files of the platoons ; these files 
should always be full. 

Figs. 36 to 42 will sufiiciently explain the formation of a squadron in 
column by twos, threes, sixes, platoons, and half squadrons, as well as the 
posts of the officers and non-commissioned ofiicers. 

Fig. 38. 



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Column by sixes — Right in front. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



143 



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Column by sixes — Left in front. 



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Column by platoons — Right in front. 



144 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



Fig. 41. 





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Column by platoons — Left in front. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY, 
Fig. 42. 



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146 



THE ARMIES OF EUROTE. 

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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 147 

TO MOUNT AND DISMOUNT THE SQUADRON. 

To mount, tlie squadron is formed with closed ranks, all the officers 
dismounted except the commander of the squadron. Fig. 43 shows the 
positions of all persons, both in mounting and dismounting; the princi- 
ples already explained in the school of the platoon are observed in this 
case. 

OF VOCAL COMMANDS. 

These are of two kinds : those of preparation, and those of execution. 

The first are uttered slowly, every syllable being clearly pronounced ; 
the latter are uttered briefly and abruptly. 

The commander should modulate his voice in proportion to the number 
of men who are to execute the command, so that every word may be 
heard. In the text, the tonic accent (1) is placed over the syllables that 
are to be accented and uttered slowly ; the hyphen (-) indicates the pass- 
age from the preparatory to the executive command. 

Commands indicating the gaits are always given with the cautionary 
command, and before the word — march. 

The commanding officer should always designate the gait. 

PRINCIPAL GUIDES. 

Sergeants Nos. 6, 9, and 12 are the principal guides of the squadron ; 
all the sergeants should, however, be instructed in the duties of principal 
guides, that they may be able to fulfil them in case of necessity. 

Fig. 44 shows the positions of the principal guides in the alignment of 
a squadron, to the right, by platoons. 

In mounted squadrons the men are arranged, according to the height 
of men and horses, from right to left in the right half squadron, and from 
left to right in the left half squadron. 

The front rank is composed of the men who are the best looking, best 
riders, and most prompt, with, as far as possible, the best and most 
thoroughly trained horses. Prompt and well-instructed men, with the 
best horses, are placed on the flanks of platoons and threes. 

SQUADRON WITH OPENED RANKS. 

The ranks may be opened either by causing the front rank to move 
forward, or the rear rank to rein back. 

Fig. 45 shows the formation of the squadron with open ranks ; the 
commandants of platoons, facing the squadron, are six paces from the 
front rank ; the ranks six paces apart ; the file-closers six paces behind 
the rear rank 

Columns by files, twos, threes, and sixes, are formed and broken as 
pi'escribed in the school of the platoon. 

The front of the column may be increased either in all the platoons at 



148 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

the same time, or, beginning with the head of the column, by the different 
platoons in succession. The front of the column is decreased always by 
the platoons in succession. 

When the squadron is in line, to break it, by the right, by platoons to 
the front, the 1st platoon marches straight to the front, all the others 
■wheel to the right on a fixed pivot; the 2d platoon then wheels to the 
left and follows the 1st; the 3d and 4th move forward and wheel to the 
left, as each arrives where the 2d wheeled to the left. 

MARCHING IN LINE. 

A. When marching in line, the alignment of the squadron will depend 
upon that of the ofiicers in front of the platoons ; it is therefore required 
that these ofiicers should be frequently exercised in marching in line, at 
the proper intervals, to the front and obliquely, at all gaits ; since absent 
officers are to be replaced by sergeants, the latter are also exercised in 
the same manner. 

B. Before marching in line with closed ranks, the squadron is exercised 
with the ranks opened to squadron distance, the front rank commanded 
by the senior subaltern, the rear rank by the second subaltern. 

C. The squadron is exercised at marching with the fiank files of the 
platoons and the intermediate sergeants, thrown forward about 20 paces. 

D. In starting or changing gait, the guide moves gently, to avoid agita- 
tion in the ranks. 

E. The march in line should not be attempted at a trot until well done 
at a walk ; after being properly done at a trot, it is executed at a gallop, 
the gait being changed on the march. 

OF COLUMNS. 

Right columns are those right in front; left columns are those left in 
front. 

There are three kinds of columns : 1, columns with distance ; 2, close 
columns ; 3, marching columns, or columns in route. 

In every kind of column the distance is measured from the fore-feet of 
the horses of one subdivision to the fore-feet of the front-rank horses of 
the next subdivision. 

In a right column the guide is left, in a left column it is right. 

The object of a column with full distance is that the troops composing- 
it may form line in every direction ; therefore the distance between the 
subdivisions must be equal to their respective fronts. 

The object of a close column is, by decreasing its depth to execute 
movements conveniently and rapidly. Close columns are formed by half 
squadrons and by squadrons; the distance is 15 paces; the formation of 
these columns is explained in the school of the regiment. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



149 










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10 



15t> THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

The object of a column in route is to effect a march conveniently. 
According to the width of the road, this column is formed by platoons, 
sixes, threes, twos, or files j in preference, by platoons, when the road 
permits. 

The direction of a column in march is changed as in the United States 
tactics ; but, in order to perfect the instruction of both ranks, the column 
by platoons is formed in single ranks, at platoon distance, in the first 
lessons. 

To form from column by platoons, or half squadrons, into line to the 
front or rear, or to increase the front of a column by platoons, each 
platoon obliques, instead of making half wheels, e.g. : 

(Fig. 46.) To form front into line i'rom a column of platoons, right in 
front, the 1st platoon marches forward platoon distance and halts, the 
others oblique to the left, by the individual oblique march, and move to 
the front when opposite their respective places in line. 

To form on the right or left into line, the leading platoon moves for- 
ward platoon distance, after having finished its wheel. 

OF ATTACKING. — THE ATTACK, OR CHARGE, IN CLOSE ORDER. 

The general rules for executing a charge in close order are the same 
as for an advance in line. 

The command of execution for a charge is niar-ch, march. 

At this command the officers and the front rank charge sabre. 

During a charge all commands, after that of march, march, are re- 
peated by the commandants of platoons. 

A charge should not extend over more than eighty paces ; the nearer 
a regiment of cavalry can approach the enemy at a trot, the more violent 
will be the shock ; but the farther from the enemy the command march, 
march, is given, the weaker will be the shock, and the greater the dis- 
order among the horses. In order to save the horses, they should, if pos- 
sible, before halting them after a charge, be brought down to a trot. 

The charge is first taught by platoon, and afterwards by squadron. 
To execute the charge by platoon, the squadron commander places him- 
self 300 paces in front of the squadron, and directs the commandant of 
the first platoon to execute the charge; this oflicer moves his platoon 
fifty paces at a walk, then 100 at a trot, fifty at a gallop, charges eighty 
paces, and halts his platoon abreast of the captain. The charge by squad- 
ron is executed in a similar manner, the captain leading the charge 

At the command trot, or loalk, after the charge, the oflBcers and the 
front rank carry sabres. 

The troops are also taught to charge directly from a halt. During the 
charge, at the command march, march, the standard-bearer falls back 
into the line of file-closers, the assistant behind him; at the command 



THE KUSSIAN ARMY. 



151 






I 



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mmmm 






7ta?^, they resume their places in line. During the charge, the rear-rank 
men are to cover their file-leaders, and neither crowd up on them nor fail 
back. 

THK CHARGE IN OPEN ORDER. 

This is efiected by one half squadron. (Fig- iT.) 

In open order the half squad- 
ron is formed in two ranks, and V- 
occupies a fi'ont equal to that of 
five platoons in close order. When 
deployed in open order the officers 
and sergeants are posted as fol- 
lows : the commander of the 
squadron always follows the 
movements of the half squadron 
detailed for duty in open order, 
and places himself where he 
deems necessary, having a trum- 
peter with him ; if there is an 
officer with the squadron as 
file-closer, he accompanies the 
squadron commander, to carry his 
orders ; the commandants of pla- 
toons are in the front rank; the 
sergeants are in their usual places, 
except that the file-closers are ten 
paces behind the rear rank. The 
other half squadron constitutes a 
reserve, and holds itself at 150 
paces in rear of the line, deployed 
in open order ; it never retires 
without special orders. The stand- 
ard remains with the reserve. 

For the charge in open order 
the signal " attack" is sounded, 
and then " disperse." If the 
charge is to be made from a P|p|!i|P?f |p Pfll^^Pf ^Hii 
halt, then at the first signal the 

designated half squadron moves forward at a trot, and at the second signal 
the commander orders disperse; if the squadron is on the march when 
the first signal is sounded, the attacking half squadron continues moving 
at the original gait, while the reserve halts. At the command dlsprrse 
the men charge sabres and disperse as follows : if it is the right half 
squadron which is to disperse, the right guide is the guide of the move- 



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152 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

ment, and moves straight forward at a hand gallop ; the rest of the 
men gain ground to the left and front, at the charging gait, until the 
left file of the second platoon extends to platoon distance to the left of 
the left flank of the reserve; (this is done to cover the intervals when 
several squadrons are formed in one line.) If it is the left half squadron 
which deploys, then the left guide is the guide of the movement, and the 
right file extends to platoon distance beyond the right file of the reserve. 
When the outer flank has extended sufficiently, the whole line moves 
straight forward at a charge, the men using their pistols and sabres, not 
paying attention to the alignment, but taking care to preserve sufficient 
intervals for a free use of their weapons. At the signal halt, they halt 
and dress on the centre, the rear- rank placing themselves ten paces be- 
hind their front-rank men. 

The skirmishers may be assembled either on the reserve or on the guide 
of the line ; in either case it is at full speed ; and in the first case the 
men fall in without regard to place, merely endeavoring to get into the 
proper rank and platoon. The men are instructed in the charge in open 
order, first at a walk, afterwards at a trot, gallop, and charge. 

ECHELONS. 

The squadron is exercised in advancing by echelons of half squadrons, 
the distance between the echelons being at least equal to the front of a 
half squadron. The advance is by alternate half squadrons, or occa- 
sionally by both advancing, in echelon, simultaneously. 

A retreat is always conducted by half squadrons, and at a walk, or trot. 
If the right half squadron commences the movement, it wheels to the 
right about by platoons, moves about half squadron distance to the rear, 
and again wheels by platoons to the right about; on this, the left half 
squadron wheels to the left about by platoons, moves squadron distance 
to the rear, and then again wheels to the left about by platoons. The 
standard remains with the left half squadron. 

SKIRMISHERS. 

The open order of battle is a chain of skirmishers, with a reserve in 
its rear. The purpose of the chain of skirmishers is to watch the move- 
ments of the enemy, to weaken and harass him by its fire, and thus to 
prepare the way for the success of the main body in close order, or else 
to cover its movements. 

The reserve is to support and reinforce the chain, and to serve as a 
rallying-point for the skirmishers; it should therefore be in rear of the 
skirmishers, and follow their movements. 

Commanders of parties detailed as skirmishers will employ vocal com- 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 153 

Diands in preference to the trumpet signals; the hitter will be employed 
only when the skirmishers are already deployed. 

To avoid the possibility of mistakes, commanders ordering their trum- 
peters to sound any signal will always indicate it by its name, and not by 
its number. 

The Russian system of instruction for mounted skirmishers gives in 
great detail the movements for their deployment, advance, and retreat; 
change of direction and position; firing, extending and closing intervals, 
assembly, relief, &c. 

If a platoon of 12 files is detailed for skirmishing duty, 6 files are de- 
ployed, and 6 are detailed as a reserve. The commandant of the platoon, 
one of the guides, a file-closer, and a trumpeter, accompany the skir- 
mishers a little in rear of the line ; the other guide commands the reserve, 
which he holds at 100 yards from the line of skirmishers. 

Fig. 48. — Skirmishers. 

...-■- C3» 




* 



(Fig. 48.) When the line is halted, each rear-rank man places him- 
self so that his horse's head shall be 1 pace to the rear and right of the 
tail of the horse of his front-rank man ; the interval between the files 
depends upon circumstances. 

To fire at a halt. — No. 1 of the front rank, in each set of threes, 
advances 20 paces at a walk, halts, turns his horse's left side obliquely 
towards the enemy, fires, and returns at a trot to the place vacated by his 
rear-rank man, who has in the mean time taken the front-rank man's 
original position. As soon as No 1 has fired, the front-rank No. 2, in 
each set of threes, advances 20 paces, but does not fire until No. 1 has 
retaken his place in the line ; when No. 3 has fired, in the same manner 
the rear-rank No. 1 fires, &c. 

To fire advancing. — This is executed according to the same principles; 
the line continuing to move forward at its original gait, while the men 
who are to fire advance by doubling the gait. 

To fire retreating. — The whole line halts, and faces the enemy; Nos. 1 
of the front rank fire, come to a right about, and retire at a walk, loading 
their pieces; as they pass their rear-rank men, the latter make a right 



154 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

about, and follow at 1 pace to the right rear of their front-rank men 3 
when they have retired 30 paces, each makes a right about, and halts, 
facing the enemy, the rear-rank men now nearest the enemy. 

As soon as Nos. 1 have executed this, Nos. 2 do the same ; then Nos. 3; 
then the rear-rank Nos. 1 fire, and so the movement is continued. 

Fig. 49 gives an example of the arrangement of 2 squadrons detailed 
as skirmishers in front of a regiment of 6 squadrons ; in each of the 2 
squadrons a half squadron is held in reserve, the other platoons being 
deployed as already explained ; each of these platoons holds one-half of 
its force in reserve. 

The chain of skirmishei's should always be continuous, unless there is 
artillery in rear of it; it should overlap the body it covers about 20 paces 
on each flank, and have its own flanks somewhat thrown back. 

When it becomes necessary to dismount parties of cavalry for the pur- 
pose of holding or carrying some post, Nos. 2 of each rank remain 
mounted, and hold the horses of Nos. 1 and 3. 

Lancers are not dismounted if it can be avoided; but if it is necessary, 
then only one-half the men dismount, and place their lances in the left 
stirrup boots of the men remaining mounted, who pass the sling over the 
left arm. 

In actual service, the officers and non-commissioned officers must watch, 
that, when the signal to commence firing is given, only those men fire 
who see the enemy within suitable range. To prevent accidents, the men 
should never cock their pieces until their turn to fire arrives. Officers 
and sergeants with the chain and reserves carry sabres. Whilst dis- 
persing, the sergeants and men charge sabres, or lances; but at the com- 
mand kalt, both ranks rest lances, or drop sabres, (allowing them to hang 
from the wrist by the sabre-knot,) and advance carbine or raise pistol. 

THE COLUMN OF ATTACK. 

Before passing to the school of the regiment, it is necessary to explain 
the column of attack. It must first be stated that in the Russian cavalry 
2 squadrons form a division, commanded by a field officer; each division 
in a cavalry regiment partially corresponding to a battalion in an infantry 
regiment in a tactical sense; in line, the interval between the 2 squadrons 
of a division is the front of a platoon. The column of attack (so called) 
is, in fact, a column of manoeuvre, and is nothing more than a division 
formed in double column on the centre by half squadrons at platoon dis- 
tance, thus: the 4th platoon of the 1st squadron and the 1st platoon of 
the 2d squadron (having closed in on each other) form the head of the 
column; the next subdivision is composed of the 3d platoon of 1st 
squadron and the 2d of the 2d squadron, &c. 

Fig. 50 shows the manner of forming column of attack from a halt. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



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THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



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15S THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

Fig. 51 shows the manner of forming column of attack advancing. 

Fig. 52 shows the manner of forming column of attack retreating, the 
division having wheeled about, by platoons, before commencing its retreat. 

To deploy the column, the platoons of the 1st squadron oblique to the 
right, those of the 2d squadron to the left ; in deploying from a halt, the 
leading platoons gain platoon distance to the front and half platoon dis- 
tance to the right and left, respectively. 

SCHOOL OF THE REGIMENT. 
Before commencing the drill of the regiment, the colonel is required 
to exercise the officers without the men ; for this purpose the command- 
ants of platoons are placed in one rank, at their proper intervals, (as if 
in front of their platoons,) the commanders of squadrons and divisions, 
also, in their proper places ; and in this position they are carried through 
the various manoeuvres, and taught to preserve their intervals and align- 
ment ; any absent commandants of platoons are replaced by sergeants. 
Regiments of cavalry consist of 6, 8, or 10 active squadrons. 
In each regiment, the squadrons are numbered in regular series, from 
right to left. 

In regiments of 8 squadrons, the 7th and 8th are called flanker squad- 
rons, and, when necessary, act as skirmishers; in regiments of 10 squad- 
rons, (dragoons,) the 9th and 10th squadrons are armed with lances, are 
called lancer squadrons, and act as skirmishers. 

In each regiment, the 1st and 2d squadrons form the 1st division, 
the 3d and 4th " " 2d " 

the 5th and 6th " " 3d " 

the 7th and 8th " " 4th " 

the 9th and 10th " " 5th " 

It may be well here to repeat, and call attention to the fact, that all 
the regiments of light cavalry of the line, and 4 of the heavy cavalry, 
are 8-squadron regiments, so that the formations, &c., hereafter given for 
8-squadron regiments may be regarded as the ride in the Russian service. 

THE FORMATIONS OF A REGIMENT IN LINE. 

A cavalry regiment may be deployed for inspection and review, or for 
combat. In 6-squadron regiments, these formations are the same ; in the 
others they are different. The formation for inspection and review is 
called the order of review; that for combat, is called the order of battle. 

THU ORDER OF REVIEW. 

This is the same for all regiments ; in it all the squadrons are formed 
in one line, arranged in the order of their numbers, from right to left; 
the interval between the squadrons is equal to the front of a platoon. 

Fig. 53 shows this formation, and the positions of the different officers. 



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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 163 

The colonel is 6 times platoon distance in front of the centre; each 
division commander at double platoon distance in front of the centre of his 
division ; the squadron officers as prescribed in the school of the squadron 

If there is not an officer, as file-closer, behind each squadron or division, 
there must, at least, be one for the regiment, who is posted at platoon distance 
in rear of the centre of the line of non-commissioned file-closers; if there 
are more than one officer, as file-closers, but not as many as the number 
of divisions, they are posted in preference behind the flank divisions. 

The trumpeters are either united, at half platoon distance on the right 
of the 1st squadron, or are with their respective squadrons. 

THE ORDER OF BATTLE. 

The formation of a regiment in order of battle depends upon the num- 
ber of squadrons of which it is composed. 

(Fig. 53.) For a regiment of 6 squadrons, it is, as already stated, the 
same as the order of review. 

(Fig. 5-4.) For a regiment of 8 squadrons, it is as follows: the first 6 
squadrons are deployed as in the order of review, and form the line of 
battle; the 7th squadron is formed in column by platoons, left in front, at 
squadron distance behind the right flank of the line of battle, its line of 
left guides being at platoon distance to the' right of the right flank of the 
1st squadron; the 8th squadron is formed in column by platoons, right in 
front, in a similar position behind the left flank of the line of battle. 

(Fig. 55.) For regiments of 10 squadrons, (dragoons,) with all their 
squadrons present, the order of battle is as follows: in two lines; one 
line of the first four squadrons, the other line of the next four, either line 
may be in front; the front line is called the line of battle, and is deployed; 
the rear line is formed in columns of attack, these columns being opposite 
the intervals in the divisions of the line of battle. 

The lancer squadrons (9th and 10th) are formed in columns by platoons 
in rear of the flanks of the line of battle, as described for the 7th and 
8th squadrons of 8-squadron regiments. 

The line of battle and the second line are 300 yards apart. 

The figures explain sufficiently the positions of the officers in the order 
of battle. 

Commands are given and repeated on the same principles as in the 
United States tactics; when the colonel gives the command, march, he 
raises his sabre vertically, to the full length of his arm; he does the same 
thing upon giving the command, halt. 

In the order of battle, the chief trumpeter accompanies the colonel; 
there is one trumpeter with each commander of division; one with each 
platoon of the flanker, or lancer, squadrons; the rest are in the rank of 
file-closers with their respective squadrons. 



1G4 THEARMIESOFEUROPE. 

In dragoon regiments, the drummers are united in rear of the second 
line. 

STANDARDS AND THEIR ESCORT. 

Every division has a standard, which is posted with the 1st squadron 
of the division, and generally follows the movements of the 3d platoon. 

The escort of the standards is always composed of one of the platoons 
of the 1st squadron of the regiment; to bring the standards to the regi- 
ment, the chief trumpeter and 3 trumpeters accompany the escort; to 
carry them back to the colonel's quarters, all the trumpeters of the regi- 
ment are detailed. 
Fig. 56. Fig. 56 shows the order of march of the standards and their 

I escort. 

^ In bringing the standards to the regiment, when the escort 

A, reaches the nearest flank of the regiment, it at once moves to 

^ its post in line, at a trot, by the rear of the regiment. 

For the departure of the standards, the chiefs of the 3d 

platoons of the standard -squadrons conduct them to the front 

^ ^ of the 1st platoon of the 1st squadron of the regiment, which 

in this case forms the escort; having turned over the standards to the 

adjutant, the chiefs of the 3d platoons at once return to their platoons. 

It is required that the commandants of the 3d platoons of standard- 
squadrons shall be officers, even if all the other platoons of the squadron 
are commanded by sergeants. 

ALIGNMENTS. 

There are no general guides. One squadron is designated as the 
squadron of direct ion; its principal guides (see school of the squadron) 
are posted by the adjutant, who then aligns the principal guides of the 
other squadrons, in succession, on them. 

When the regiment is deployed, it may be aligned by ordering the 
commandants of platoons forward on the line, instead of sending out the 
principal guides. The principal guides or commandants of platoons move 
to their posts on the new line at a full gallop. 

TO CHANGE FROM THE ORDER OF REVIEW TO THE ORDER OF BATTLE. 

In an 8-squadron regiment, the first 6 squadrons stand fast, the com- 
manders of the 7th and 8th wheel their squadrons by platoons to the 
right, and conduct them, by the shortest line, to their new positions. 

In a 10-squadron regiment the first two divisions stand fast; the 3d 
and 4th form columns of attack, and then move by the shortest line to 
their new positions; the 9th and 10th squadrons act as prescribed for the 
7th and 8th of an 8-squadron regiment. 



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THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



In columns with distance, the colonel and the commanders of divisions 
and squadrons are all on the directing flank, opposite the centres of their 
respective commands, and at distances from the line of guides equal to 
their respective distances in front of the line when it is deployed; so that 
if the column wheels into line they are all in their proper places; the 
adjutant habitually follows the colonel. 

Among other formations in column, the regiment is sometimes formed 
into several parallel columns of divisions, or squadrons, by platoons. 



CLOSE COLUMNS. 

In these, the distance between subdivisions is 15 paces, measured from 
the fore-feet of the front-rank horses of one subdivision to the same of 
the next subdivision. 

Fig. 57 shows the manner of forming close column by squadron, from a 
halt, and the posts of the ofiicers. If there are in front of any of the pla- 
toons officers other than their commandants, they retain their usual places. 

If the close column is by half squadron, the commandants of divisions 
and squadrons are posted on the directing flanks of their leading sub- 
divisions, and the commandants of half squadrons on the directing flanks 
of their respective commands. 

Fig. 58. 




(For scale, see p. 167.) 



IBIiED 



In forming close column from a halt, the movement is by threes, in 
each rank. In regiments of 10 squadrons, to form close column from 
order of battle, the divisions of the 2d line first deploy. 

Fig. 58 will show the general manner in which a regiment formed in 
columns of attack changes front and deploys. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



167 



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168 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

Fig. 59 will sufficiently explain the general methods of deploying close 
columns. 

The changes of front are executed either with the squadrons deployed, 
or formed in columns of attack. 

The regiment is exercised in advancing and retreating by alternate 
half squadrons, squadrons, or divisions. 

The formations in echelon are by half squadrons, squadrons, or divisions. 

THE CHARGE. 

The charge in line, in close order, is executed according to the princi- 
ples laid down in the school of the squadron. 

In certain cases, regiments charge in close column ■ this is executed, in 
preference, by the cuirassiers, and always at the trot out; only the front 
rank of the leading subdivision charge lances, or sabres. 

The charge in open order is also executed according to the principles 
laid down in the school of the squadron; one half squadron of every 
squadron charges, while the others remain in reserve. One division com- 
mander is detailed to command the half squadrons which charge, another 
to direct the reserve. If the regiment is formed in columns of attack, 
when the charge in open order is to be made, the squadrons first form 
columns by half squadron, of which the leading half squadrons charge, 
while those in rear are held in reserve, and at once take the proper inter- 
vals of 5 platoon fronts. 

The flanker squadrons of 8-squadron regiments, and the lancer squad- 
rons and second line of dragoons, follow the movements of the line of 
battle ; marching at the same gait as the latter until it charges, when they 
move on at the trot out ; closing up on the line of battle to the prescribed 
distance, when it halts. If the colonel considers it necessary to form the 
flanker or lancer squadrons in echelon, he orders them to form squadron, 
after which they continue the movement as just explained. 

If the signal reserve is sounded, these flanker or lancer squadrons, 
instead of halting, move on at a charge in pursuit of the beaten enemy, 
returning to their posts in rear of the flanks when the recall is sounded. 

REVIEWS. 

Cavalry passes in review : in column with distance, by platoons, half 
squadrons, or squadrons ; in column ivith half distance, by half squadrons, 
squadrons, or divisions; in close column, by half squadrons, or squadrons. 
The adjutant is at the head of the column ; one pace behind the adjutant 
is the band of trumpeters, in two ranks, with the chief trumpeter on the 
right of the front rank ; the colonel, 6 paces in rear of the trumpeters ; 
the commander of the 1st division, 3 paces in rear of the colonel; the 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 1G9 

commander of the leading squadron, 3 paces in rear of the division com- 
mander ; then the leading subdivision of the column. 

The Russians call a division of 2 brigades divista ; a division of 2 
squadrons is divis«o/«. Confusion is thus avoided. 

EVOLUTIONS OF THE LINE. 

The volume on this subject is divided into two parts : 1. Evolutions 
of the line proper; 2. Orders of battle, general columns, and the appli- 
cation of the evolutions of the line to these. 

EVOLUTIONS OF THE LINE PROPER. 

This subject comprehends the movements of several regiments, whether 
in line or in columns. 

The first great requisites for a successful cavalry general and instructor 
are, perfect coolness and presence of mind. 

The rules for giving and repeating commands, as given in the school of 
the regiment, apply here, with a few additions. 

The preparatory commands are given by the general commanding, and are 
repeated by the other generals and the colonels ; they are at once followed 
by the designation of the gait and the command, march. Down to the bri- 
gadier-generals, inclusive, the general commands alone are given j the colo- 
nels give the special commands prescribed in the school of the regiment. 

In all cases the generals of brigade repeat the prepai'atory commands 
of the generals of their divisions. 

If all the regiments of a brigade are to execute the same movement, 
the general of brigade gives the preparatory commands for all of them. 

If difierent regiments of a brigade are to execute diflferent movements, 
the general of brigade gives the preparatory command for the movement 
of the 1st regiment only ; the colonels of the other regiments giving the 
requisite commands. 

Whenever the preparatory commands are to be repeated by all the 
generals and colonels, the general commanding raises his sabre ; this 
signal is repeated simultaneously by all the generals and colonels ; the 
commanders of divisions (2 squadrons) and squadrons at once give the 
command, march. 

When a movement is to he executed by all the troops, the general pre- 
paratory commands are repeated by all the subordinate commanders; but 
when only a portion of the troops are to execute the movement, the pre- 
paratory commands will be repeated only by the commanders of that 
portion. 

Colonels will always preface the command, regiment, by the number of 

their regiments in the division, or brigade, (if there is only a brigade 

present.) 

11 



170 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

Generals of division will likewise preface the command, division, by 
the number of their respective divisions; but generals of brigade simply 
give the command, hrigade, not prefacing any number. 

If the troops are formed in one general column, or in a line of reoi- 
mental columns, the commands to draw and return sahrcs are given by 
the generals of division, and repeated by the generals of brigade and the 
colonels ; the troops execute the order at the command of the latter. If 
the regiments are deployed, or each formed into several columns in line, 
these commands are repeated by all commanders, down to those of squad- 
rons inclusive, and executed at the command of the latter. When the 
number of troops is so great that the voice of the general commanding 
cannot be heard by all, he sends his orders by aides-de-camp. In such 
cases the distant parts should conform to the movements of those nearest 
the general commanding, that the movements may be as simultaneous as 
possible. The general will assure himself that the aides fully comprehend 
the order, so as to prevent errors and misunderstandings ; the aides should 
carry the order with the utmost rapidity, and deliver it clearly and slowly, 
but they have no authority to interfere with the execution. If they see 
that the order is not properly carried out, they should remind the officer 
to whom it was delivered and return to the general as soon as it is exe- 
cuted ; they report the fulfilment of the order, or the reason for its non- 
fulfilment. Trumpet signals apply only to the first line, and are repeated 
only by the trumpeters of that line. All commands to the second and 
other lines are given by the voice. The rules for the guidance of the 
principal guides, as given in the school of the regiment, apply to the 
case of evolutions of the line. 

POSTS OF GENERALS, ETC. 

Figs. 60 to 65 give the positions of the generals of division, brigade, &c. 
When the regiments are deployed, either in the order of review or of 
battle, the generals of division are at the distance of ten platoon fronts 
in advance of the centres of their respective divisions; the generals of 
brigade eight platoon fronts in advance of the centres of their brigades. 

In general close column (fig. 63) the general of division is on the di- 
recting flank of the leading subdivision of his command, at the distance 
of three platoon fronts from the guide ; each general of brigade on the 
line of his leading subdivision, at the distance of two platoon fronts from 
the guide. When the regiments are formed in line of close columns of 
regiments, at deploying intervals, the posts of the generals are as when 
the regiments are deployed. When the line of close column of regiments 
is with closed intervals, the generals of division are at the distance of six 
platoons; generals of brigade, four; colonels, two in advance; the latter are 
on the prolongation of the lines of guides of their regiments. The general 



171 



Fig, 60.— Division 



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172 



the order of review. 



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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 173 

commanding may move wherever his presence is most necessary ; but the 
subordinate commanders will in no case leave the places assigned to them, 
but will correct any faults, either by orders to the nearest subordinate 
commanders, or by means of their aides-de-camp. Each general has a 
trumpeter with him ; the other trumpeters take post as prescribed in the 
school of the regiment. 

OP DEPLOYED LINES. 

Regiments and brigades are posted, in each division, from right to left, 
according to seniority. In the order of review and the order of battle 
they are each formed as i^rescribed in the school of the regiment. Corps, 
divisions, and brigades are habitually formed in order of battle, unless 
special orders are given to form them in the order of review. 

Fig. 64 shows the formation of a brigade of eight-squadron regiments 
in the order of battle. 

Fig. 65 shows the formation of a brigade of ten-squadron regiments in 
the order of battle. 

Both in the order of battle and that of review the interval between 
regiments and brigades is two platoon fronts ; in the first case, for eight 
and ten sqiiadron regiments, this interval is measured between the flanker, 
or lancer, squadrons. In the order of battle of commands composed of 
ten-squadron regiments the front line may be composed of the correspond- 
ing wings of all the regiments, or one half of it may be composed of the 
right wings of one-half the regiments, and the other half of it of the 
left wings of the remaining regiments. 

In the order of battle of eight and ten squadron regiments the flanker, 
or lancer, squadrons are regarded as belonging to the first line, and not 
as constituting a separate line. When the general line is to be aligned to 
the front, care must be taken that the new direction does not cross the old. 

In all alignments the flanker, or lancer, squadrons, formed in columns by 
platoons, align themselves on the flank squadrons of the line of battle, 
and always have the guide on the inner flank. 

The march to the front, the oblique march, wheels and abouts by sub- 
divisions, and halts, are executed by the commands and according to the 
principles laid down in the school of the regiment, substituting in the 
preparatory commands, when necessary, the word division, or hrigade, for 
regiment. The charge is executed according to the principles laid down 
in the school of the regiment. 

The same holds good with regard to the passage of obstacles ; but if 
partial obstacles exist along the front of a whole regiment, each squadron 
breaks into column by the appropriate subdivision, and forms squadron as 
soon as the obstacle is passed. If all the ground in front of a regiment 
is impassable, it forms into close column, by squadrons, in rear of one of 
the regiments on its flanks, and does not re-enter the line until the next 



174 



THE ARMIES OF EUE.OPE. 



halt, unless oiders to the contrary are given. If the obstacle is in front 
of the regiment of direction, another regiment is designated in its place. 

ECHELONS. 

The formation of and movements by echelons are executed as in the 
school of the regiment, with the following modifications : 

(Fig. 66.) In a line of considerable extent, one part may break by 

Fig. 66. 



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Echelons by divisions, one regiment standing fast. 

echelons while the other part remains in line; in this case the movement 
begins at one of the flanks, and is arrested by the command, halt. 

Echelons may be formed on an interior part of the line, in which case 
that part is designated as that of direction ; the following movements may 
thus be executed : (1,) one flank of the line may break by echelons to 
the front, and the other to the rear ; (2,) both flanks may break to the 
front, or both to the rear; (3,) the subdivision of direction may commence 
the movement, by breaking to the front or rear. 

In the first two cases the subdivision of direction stands fast, in the last 
case it commences the movement; all these movements are executed as 
prescribed in the school of the regiment. During movements by eche- 
lons, the 2d line of ten-squadron regiments conforms to what will here- 
after be laid down for the second line. Line is formed from echelons 
according to the principles of the school of the regiment. 

THE ADVANCE AND RETREAT BY ALTERNATE HALF SQUADRONS, 
SQUADRONS, AND DIVISIONS. 

This is executed as prescribed in the school of the regiment, with the 
following modifications : if the movement is ordered to be commenced by 
the right, and by divisions, (of two squadrons,) then, in six and eight 
squadron regiments, the 1st and 3d divisions of the 1st regiment, and 2d 
division of the 2d regiment of each brigade, commence the movement; 
if it is directed to be commenced by the left, the 2d division of the 1st 
regiment, and the 1st and 3d divisions of the 2d regiment, commence the 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY, 175 

movement. If the order to advance by alternate subdivisions is given 
while the line is on the march, the subdivisions which are to commence 
the movement continue marching at the original gait, but the others haltj 
if, under the same circumstances, a retreat is to be executed, the sub- 
divisions which are to commence the movement at once wheel about at the 
original gait, the others halt. 

TO CHANGE FRONT. 

In changes of ft-ont the general rule is : the regiment of direction 
changes front by the rules laid down in the school of the regiment ; the 
others form columns of attack, which move by the shortest lines upon the 
positions marked by their principal guides. 

If, in a single brigade, the preparatory command is prefaced by the 
words, " hy squadrons," each regiment executes the movement according 
to the school of the regiment, neither forming columns of attack. 

If the flank squadron of any brigade or division is the squadron of 
direction, the contiguous regiment of the next brigade or division may 
change front according to the school of the regiment. In a line of great 
extent, all the regiments may be first formed into columns of attack, and 
the change of front then executed. 

OF THE FORMATION OF COLUMNS. 

General rules. — Columns with full distance are formed according to the 
school of the regiment. Columns with less than full distance are formed 
like close columns. The principles of the formation of close colunlns by 
squadrons and by half squadrons being the same, the rules for those by 
squadrons are alone given. 

Columns having the senior regiment in front are called right columns, 
those having the junior regiment in front are called left columns, whether 
each regiment be right or left in front; in all cases right general columns 
have the guide left, and the reverse. 

The distance between divisions, brigades, and regiments, in close column, 
is twice platoon distance, measured as between the subdivisions of a regi- 
mental close column. General close columns may be formed either from 
a deployed line or from a line of close regimental columns. 

FORMATION OF GENERAL CLOSE COLUMNS FROM A DEPLOYED LINE. 

(Figs. 67 and 68.) One squadron is designated as that of direction; the 
regiment to which that squadron belongs forms close column on it, ac- 
cording to the school of the regiment; the other regiments each form 
close column on the flank squadron nearest the regiment of direction, 
and then move by the oblique march to their respective positions in the 
general column. 



1V6 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



In all the movements of the regimental columns to form the general 
column, especially when obliquing, every squadron must be exactly 

Fig. 67. 




General right column on 3d squadron, 1st regiment. 
Fig. 68. 



(For scale, see p. 174.) 




parallel to its original position in line ; the lines of guides on both flanks 
must be parallel to each other, and perpendicular to the squadron at the 
head of the column ; and, finally, the several files must be parallel to 
each other. 



FORMATION OF GENERAL CLOSE COLUMNS FROM A LINE OF REGI- 
MENTAL COLUMNS. 

Regimental columns in line — i.e. columns having the heads of all the 
regiments on the same line — are formed with full or closed intervals; this 
formation is called a line of columns with full or closed intervals. 

Full intervals are such as to permit all the regiments to deploy into 
order of battle on the same squadron of every regiment ; closed intervals 
are : between 6-squadron regiments 2 platoon fronts; between 8-squadron 
regiments 4 platoon fronts; between 10-squadron regiments 6 platoon 
fronts. 

General close column may be formed from a line of columns, either 
with full or closed intervals. 

The first case has already been explained, when giving the manner of 
forming general column from a deployed line. 

Fig. 69 gives an example of the latter case ; one regiment being desig- 
nated as that of direction, those which are to be in front of it in the 
column march straight to the front, until arriving abreast of their places 
in column, when they move straight to their places ; those that are to be 
in rear of the directing regiment gain their positions by first marching to 
the rear. 

If the order to form general column is given when the line is in march 
the directing regiment halts; the others acting as just described. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



177 



Fig. 70 shows the manner of forming the general column on one of the 
flanks when the march is to be continued after the formation. 



Fig. 69. 



Fig. 70. 




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Formation of a right general 
column, on 3d regiment, from 
a line of columns with closed 
intervals. 



The 1st regiment marches straight forward; the 2d moves to the right, 
by threes in each rank, as soon as the last squadron of the 1st regiment 
is abreast of the 3d squadron of the 2d regiment, and moves to the left, 
by threes, when its line of left guides is on the prolongation of that of 
the 1st regiment; the 3d and 4th regiments move to the right, in turn, 
as soon as the regiments next on their right have gained an interval 
equal to the depth of a regimental close column — i.e. in a 6-squadron 
regiment 5 platoon fronts ; in an 8-squadron regiment 7 platoon fronts ; 
in a 10-squadron regiment 9 platoon fronts. At the close of the move- 
ment, the distances between the regiments in the general column will be 
four platoon fronts ; the colonels of the 2d, 3d, and 4th regiments will, 
therefore, close up on the head of the column, by doubling the gait. 

If the column is thus formed on the march, the 1st regiment continues 
to move at the original gait; the others halt. 

Each brigade may be formed into a separate column, and these brigade 
columns, afterwards, in one general column. 

Fig. 71 shows the manner of forming general close column, from a line 
of regimental columns, by a change of direction to the right or left, 
executed by each regiment. If the intervals between the regiments in 
line are less than those already laid down, it will be necessary to increase 
them for eight or ten squadron regiments before executing the move- 



178 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



ment. At the close of tliis formation, the regiments in the general 
column will have less than their proper distances; these must be taken 
upon the first movement of the column. 




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TO FORM LINE OF COLUMNS FROM A DEPLOYED LINE. 

To effect this, each regiment forms close column by squadron. 

If the same squadron in each regiment is taken as that of direction, 
the line of columns will be formed with full intervals. 

If the line is to be formed with closed intervals, the squadrons of 
direction are so chosen, in the different regiments, that no squadron may- 
be obliged to pass twice over the same ground. 

A line of columns of attack is formed as prescribed in the school of 
the regiment. 

OF MOVEMENTS IN COLUMN. 

Movements in general column. — These are made in every direction, 
according to the principles of the school of the regiment. 

In changing the direction of a close column, by the head of column, 
the following is to be observed : each regiment will turn where those in 
front of it did; the gait of the regiments in rear must be so regulated 
that no part of the column may be obliged to halt before the wheel is 
made, and that, on the completion of the wheel, every regiment may have 
its proper distance. 

Fig. 72 gives an example of the method of changing the direction of a 
close column from a halt. 



THE KUSSIAN ARMY. 



179 



In close column, distances are taken in accordance with the principles 
of the school of the regiment; e.(j., in a close column, consisting of a 
brigade of 2 six-squadron regiments, to take distance, by head of column, 
on the 2d squadron of 2d regiment; the 2d regiment takes distance on 
its 2d squadron, as laid down in the school of the regiment; the colonel 
of the 1st regiment marches it forward, and when his 6th squadron is 6 
times platoon distance in advance of the point where the 1st squadron of 
2d regiment halted, he halts the 6th squadron ; the others halting in suc- 
cession as they gain their distances. 



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Columns with distance are closed according to the school of the regiment. 

3Iovcments of a line of columns. — These are eflfected according to the 
same principles, and by the same commands, as for a deployed line. 

The intervals of a line of columns are diminished or extended by 
marching each column along the line; the principal guides of the leading 
squadron of each column precede it, and mark its new position. 

Fig. 73 presents an example of the manner of changing the front of a 
line of columns with closed intervals. 



TO FORM LINE FROM COLUMN. 

General rules. — To form line from a right general column, with full 
distance, each subdivision wheels to the left; from a left column, they 
wheel to the right ; in both cases the line is formed on the side of the 
guides, and in accordance with the principles of the school of the regiment. 

To form line forward from a similar column, it is first closed, and the 
line then formed as usual from closed columns. 

A general close column may be formed either into line of columns, or 
into a deploi/ed line. 

The formation into line of columns may be effected either to the front, 
to the right, or to the left. That to the front is effected by conducting 
the heads of the regiments on the new line ; that to the left, (Fig. 76,) 



180 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 






Fig. 77. 



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For scale, see page 174. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



181 



from a right column, by a change of direction to the left in each regi- 
ment; that to the right, from a left column, by a change of direction to 
the right in each regiment. 

To form a general close column into a deployed line, to either flank, the 
column first changes direction, and then forms line to the front. A line 
of close columns may also be deployed into line to the front, or either 
flank; in the last case, the preceding paragraph must be conformed to. 

In forming line of columns from general close column, the regiment 
of direction may either halt or move forward. In both cases the forma- 
tion is executed according to the rules given, in the school of the regi- 
ment, for deploying a close column: i.e. all the movements and rules 
laid down for the squadrons and squadron 
commanders are here executed by the regi- 
mental columns and the colonels. 

The line on which the heads of columns 
form is marked by the principal guides of the 
leading squadron of each regiment. 

The line of columns, formed from general 
column, should be with closed intervals. 

Fig. 74 shows the manner of forming line 
of columns to the front, on the 3d regiment, 
which stands fast. 

Fig. 75 shows the manner of forming line of columns to the front, on 
the 3d regiment, which advances. 

Fig. 76 shows the manner of forming line of columns to the left, from 
general column. 

To form a deployed line from general close column, one squadron is 
designated as that of direction. In forming line on the leading squadron, 
it may either stand fast or advance; if any other squadron is that of 
direction, it will always be thrown forward. The column may be de- 
ployed either from a halt or on the march ; in the latter case, the squad- 
ron of direction halts at the command of execution. 

Fig. 77 gives an example of the manner of deploying a general column 
of 2 regiments on the 6th squadron of the 1st regiment. 

Fig. 78 gives an example of the deployment of the same column on the 
2d squadron of the 2d regiment. 

TO DEPLOY INTO LINE FROM A LINE OF COLUMNS. 
Fig. 79. 





Fig. 79 gives an example of the deployment of a line of 2 regimental 



182 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

columns ; this will explain the general principle of all such deployments, 
in which the squadrons of direction always advance upon the new line. 

A line of columns of attack is deployed as prescribed in the school of 
the regiment. 

OF THE FORMATION IN TWO LINES. 

The first line is usually deployed; the second in columns of attack; the 
first line, however, is sometimes also in columns of attack. 

The distance between the lines is, usually, about 300 yards. 

The second line is formed in columns of attack, because these columns 
are deployed more rapidly than any other; because in this order the 
second line can advance through the first without obstacle, and the first 
can in like manner retreat through the second. 

The columns of attack of the second line are placed behind the cor- 
responding divisions (of 2 squadrons) of the first line ; the centres of the 
columns opposite the middles of the intervals in the divisions of the first 
line. 

A general column is deployed into two lines, as follows : the portions 
designated for the 1st line remain in the column until ordered to deploy, 
either from a halt or in march, by the general commanding, whose order 
is repeated by the commander of the 1st line ; the portions designated 
for the 2d line are conducted to the proper distance to the rear by the 
commander of that line, and, having gained this distance, at once deploy, 
and form columns of attack; if the deployment is made on the march, 
the 2d line reduces the gait, halting if the original gait was a walk, and 
then acts as described above ; in any case, when the 2d line has formed 
its columns of attack, it preserves its proper distance from the 1st line by 
doubling or reducing the gait as may be necessary. 



ASSIGNMENT AND POSITION OF COMMANDERS. 

Each line should have a special commander. In a division formed in 
two lines by brigade, the commanders of the lines are the generals of the 
brigades of which they are respectively formed ; if a brigade is formed in 
two lines, the colonels of the regiments are the commanders of the lines; 
if each line is composed of two regiments belonging to difi'erent brigades, 
then the general of division assigns a general of brigade to command each 
line. In every case the position of the commander of each line is in con- 
formity with what has heretofore been prescribed ; e.ff. if a line consists 
of two regiments, whether of the same brigade or not, the commander of 
that line posts himself as prescribed for a general of brigade. 

The general of division is always with the 1st line. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 183 



MOVEMENTS OE THE LINES. 

All movements of the 1st line are made by signals, or by the order ot 
the general commanding, repeated by the commander of the 1st line; the 
movements of the 2d line are made by orders of the general commanding, 
transmitted by an aide-de-camp, and upon the immediate order of the 
commander of the 2d line. Trumpet signals refer only to the 1st line, 
and are not repeated by the trumpeters of the 2d line. The 2d line con- 
forms to all the general movements of the 1st, and preserves, with refer- 
ence to it, the distance at which it was originally formed. If the 1st line 
charges, the 2d moves at the trot out, and resumes its proper distance 
when the 1st halts, or passes to a slower gait from the charge. 

If the 1st line moves to either flank, advances, or retreats, the 2d line, 
formed in columns of attack, executes the corresponding movements by 
platoons. If the 1st line advances or retreats by alternate subdivisions, 
the 2d line, in conforming to the movement, moves in one mass ; e.g., if 
the 1st line advances by alternate squadrons, the odd squadrons com- 
mencing the movement, the whole of the 2d line advances when the even 
squadrons of the 1st line start, and halts when these squadrons arrive 
abreast of the halted odd squadrons, and again advances when the odd 
squadrons start the second time, — for the distance between the lines is 
measured between the nearest parts of the two ; if the 1st line retreats by 
alternate squadrons, commencing with the odd squadrons, the 2d line 
stands fast until the even squadrons start, and moves with them. 

If the' 1st line advances or retreats by echelons of divisions, the 
columns of attack of the 2d line move at the same time as their corre- 
sponding divisions of the 1st line ; if but a part of the 1st line breaks 
by echelons, the other part remaining in line, the 2d line conforms to 
the movement. 

If the 1st line breaks by echelons on both flanks, or by the centre, 
the 2d line moves in line, with the rear echelons. If the 1st line breaks 
by echelons of squadrons, the divisions of the 2d line conform to the 
movements of that squadron of their corresponding division of the 1st 
line which is nearest them, and farthest from the enemy. 

CHANGES OF FRONT. 

The 1st line changes front as heretofore explained. 

When the front is changed 45°, the division of direction in the 2d line 
is the one corresponding to that of the 1st line. The directing division 
of the 2d line, and all the others in rear of that flank of the 1st line 
which forms forward, also form forward; the division next to that of 
direction, on the side in rear of that flank of the 1st line which forms to 



184 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



tli« rear, will have its new position on the line of original formation of 
the 2d line, and at the point originally occupied by the next division on 
the other side of that of direction ; all the remaining divisions form to 
the rear. 

Fig. 80 shows the manner of changing front forward 45°, on the first 

Fig. 80. 



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:TTj'/j CEiinj [^iTxira rarxr.-- tniKia jsiTj;-:jri 




Change of front 45°, on the 1st division 2d regiment. 

division of the second regiment of the 1st line, and explains what has 
just been said: i.e. the first division of the second regiment of the 2d 
line is that of direction : it and all the divisions of the 1st regiment 
form forward, the second division of the second regiment occupies the 
original position of the third division of the first regiment, and the third 
division of the second regiment forms to the rear. 

Fig. 81 shows the manner of changing front 90°. This example will 
explain the general rule for changing front 90°, which is as follows : in 
the second line, the division of direction is the one corresponding to that 
of the 1st line : it, and all the others behind that flank of the 1st line 
which forms forward, form forward ; the two next divisions in rear of 
the other flank of the 1st line also form forward; the remaining divisions 
of the 2d line form to the rear. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



186 




o5' 



PASSAGE OP THE LINE, 

This may be executed in three ways; (a) by the 2d line advancing 
through the 1st; (i) by the 1st line retreating through the 2d; (c) by 
the simultaneous movement of both lines in opposite directions, i.e. the 
1st line retreating, the 2d advancing. 

When the general commanding intends the 2d line to advance through 
the 1st, he sends orders to the commander of the 2d line to advance ; if 
he intends the 1st line to retreat through the 2d, he informs the com- 
mander of the latter of his intention, and orders the 1st line to retreat. 

In the passage of the line, both may be formed in columns of attack, 
or one in this order and the other deployed. 

It is a general rule that any party of troops meeting, or passing, another 
party, leaves the latter on its left ; therefore, if the 2d line, formed in 
columns of attackj is ordered to pass through the 1st line, formed in like 



186 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



mm 
mm 



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mm 






manner, the columns of the 2d line pass to the right of the corresponding 

columns of the 1st line, as 
^^\ aaaa shown in figure 83. 

X ^ MM- -> ^^' ^^^^^ similar circum- 

mf.. BIBI stances, the 1st line retreats 

through the 2d, the same 
principle is conformed to. 

(Fig. 82.) If the 2d line, 
formed in columns of attack, 
is ordered to pass through the 
1st, which is deployed, then 
the columns pass through the 
intervals in the corresponding 
divisions of the 1st line. 

If both lines, formed in 
columns of attack, meet on 
the march, those advancing 
move straight forward, while 
those in retreat oblique to 
the right, out of their way. 
(Fig. 82.) When the 2d 
line, in columns of attack, 
passes though the 1st, which 
is deployed, it is necessary 
to increase the intervals in 
the centres of the divisions 
of the 1st line; this is done 
by the commands of the divi- 
sion and squadron command- 
ers, without waiting for the 
orders of the commander of 
the line; to effect this, the 
inner flank platoons of each 
squadron wheel about by 
threes, then wheel to the 
right and left, respectively, 
by platoon, then wheel about 
by threes, and stand fast 
until the 2d line has passed, 

on which the commandants of platoons at once wheel into line. 

If the 1st line is in retreat, deployed, or in columns of attack, and the 

2d line is ordered to deploy before the 1st has passed it, then, in the first 

case, (the line retreating deployed,) the odd squadrons of the 1st line 






bo 



9LXZLB- 

d truer 




THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 187 

break into columns by platoons riglit in front, the even squadrons left 
in front, and pass through the intervals on the right of their correspond- 
ing squadrons of the 2d line; having passed the line, these columns, by 
platoons, oblique towards each other, and thus form columns of attack ; 
in the second case, i.e. the 1st line retreating in columns of attack, these 
columns pass through the intervals in the divisions of the second line, 
which are increased for their passage, as already explained. 

When the columns of the 2d line have passed the 1st, they may either 
be deployed at once or remain in columns. 

If the advancing 2d line is halted at less than 300 yards in front of 
the 1st, the latter does not take its proper distance until the next move- 
ment, unless it receives special orders to the contrary. 

If the advancing 2d line is not halted at 300 paces from the 1st, but 
continues to advance, the latter follows the movements of the former at 
the prescribed distance. 

When the 2d line passes the 1st, which is deployed, the latter at once 
forms into columns of attack, without awaiting the orders of the general 
commanding in chief. 

The tactics give, in detail, the order of march, in review, for a corps 
of cavalry, with its artillery. 

ORDERS OF BATTLE, AND GENERAL COLUMNS. 
ORDERS OF BATTLE — GENERAL RULES. 

To explain the orders of battle, the case taken is that of a division of 
cavalry, with its artillery. 

By the order of battle of a division of cavalry is meant such a distri- 
bution of its parts that the division can act promptly against the enemy. 

In the order of battle the regiments are placed in two, three, or more 
lines. The distribution of the troops in lines, and the formation of each 
line, depends upon the purpose of each oi'der of battle. 

The 1st line is usually deployed, and is called the line of battle ; the 
troops of the 2d and 3d lines are formed in columns, and, according to 
the nature of the columns, constitute either supports or reserves: e.g., if 
a line is of columns of attack, the troops thus formed are supports, but if 
the formation is in close columns of regiments by squadrons they consti- 
tute reserves. 

The distance between the lines is usually about 300 yards. 

The second line is intended as a support for the first, in case of neces- 
sity ; it should, therefore, be formed in the order most suitable for this 
purpose. In conformity with this, it is formed into columns of attack ; 
for these can be deployed more rapidly than any other column, and allow 
an easy passage of the line. 

12 



188 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

The purpose of the third line is to support the other two, and also to 
operate wherever its presence may be necessary. To fulfil this object, it 
is posted behind the centre of the other lines, and is formed in close 
columns by squadrons. It is placed behind the centre, because that 
position is about equally distant from the points where it will most pro- 
bably be required, i.e. the flanks and the centre ; it is formed in close 
columns by squadrons, because in that order the troops are more concen- 
trated than in any other, and can, therefore, be conveniently moved 
wherever required, and can also, without any inconvenience, be divided 
and detached, as circumstances may render necessary. 

EXPLANATION OP THE ORDERS OF BATTLE. 

Divisions may form in three orders of battle and one order of reserve. 

Tlie first order of hattle. — This is employed when the division is 
isolated, and does not intend engaging in a serious aSkir with the enemy; 
therefore, in this case a considerable portion of its force is in reserve. 
The general formation in this order of battle is : one line of battle, one 
line of supports, and one line of reserves. 

Fig. 88 shows the peculiarity of the formation of a division of ten- 
squadron regiments. 

Figs. 84 to 89 will indicate with sufficient clearness the formation of 
the diff"erent kinds of divisions of llussian cavalry. 

It is only necessary to remark that eight pieces constitute a battery; 
that when half a battery is in reserve it is formed in double column on 
the centre, by sections ; a battery in reserve is formed in double column 
on the centre, by half battery ; when two batteries are in reserve, each 
is formed as just described for a single battery. 

The skirmishers represented in the plates are furnished by the flanker, 
or lancer, squadrons of the regiment in the first line, except those of the 
division of light cavalry of the guard, which are furnished by a regiment 
(two squadrons) of Cossacks. 

The second order of hattle. — This is employed when the division is 
supported by other troops, and should present an extended front to the 
enemy. 

Divisions composed of six and eight squadron regiments are formed 
in two lines: the first consists of two regiments deployed; the second 
gf the remaining regiments in columns of attack; there is no line of 
reserves. 

Fig. 90 shows the peculiar formation of dragoon divisions in this order 
of battle. 

Figs. 91 to 95 give all necessary information as to the formation of the 
other kinds of divisions. 

The third order of battle. — This is established for the case when a 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY, 



189 



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THE RUSSIAN ARMY, 



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196 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

divisioa is to make a very energetic attack. In this case the division is 
formed in four lines; in the first line, one regiment deployed, with artil- 
lery on both flanks; in each of the other lines one regiment in columns 
of attack. 

Figs. 96 to 101 give the necessary details. 

Fig. 97 shows one exception to the rule in the case of a division of but 
three full regiments and one Cossack regiment of two squadrons. 

Fig. 100 shows an exception in the case of a division of ten-squadron 
regiments, in which each line is composed of parts of two different 
regiments. 

The order of reserve serves to concentrate the troops. It presents the 
following advantages : from it the troops can pass in the shortest time to 
any of the orders of battle ; they can be most rapidly formed into one or 
several columns; any portion of the division can be detached without 
disturbing the general arrangement. In this order the division is 
arranged in two lines of close columns by squadrons, the senior regi- 
ment of each brigade on the right. Figs. 102 to 107 give the details. 
The batteries are formed in double column on the centre by half bat- 
teries. If the general commanding deems proper, he may place the 
artillery of each brigade in the intervals between the regiments, increas- 
ing, for this purpose, the usual interval of fifty paces to such an extent 
that there may be an interval of twenty paces between each flank of the 
artillery and the adjacent regiment ; in this case, when the division is at 
a halt the chiefs of pieces of the leading half batteries align themselves 
on the front rank of the leading squadrons; on the march they align 
themselves on the file-closers of the leading squadrons. 

GENERAL COLUMNS. 

These are columns in which all parts of the division are so arranged 
that it can easily pass to one of the orders of battle. 

A division of cavalry may be formed in one or two general columns. 
This formation is employed for taking up a position preparatory to action, 
or when in route; therefore such columns are called, respectively, offensive 
columns and marching columns. 

For movements to a flank, and turning movements, the formation in 
two columns is used; these are called, respectively, flank and turning 
columns. General columns having the senior regiment in front are right 
columns, those having the junior regiment in front are left columns, 
whether each regiment be right or left in front. 

In the formation of a division into columns, the general rule is that 
the odd-numbered regiments are left in front; the even, right in front. 
The commander may place the regiments and brigades in the columns as 
he judges best, without regard to the general rule. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



197 



General columns, for one division, with one battery. 
Fig. 108. Fig. 109. 






^ Fig. 110. 



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Fig. 108. In one column. 

Fig. 109. In two columns. 

Fig. 110. In two columns, right or left in front. 



198 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

Figs. 108, 109, 110, show the arrangement of the regiments of a divi- 
sion, in one or two columns. 

In marching columns, the regiments move by platoons, breaking by 
sixes, or threes, when a decrease in the width of the road renders it 
necessary. 

For movements in retreat, the parts of the division are arranged in the 
columns as for an advance, but in inverse order. 

If a flank movement is to be made in sight of the enemy, or at but a 
short distance from him, each line forms a separate column, marching by 
platoons or threes, so as to avoid all shifting of parts, and to be able to 
form rapidly into order of battle; during the flank march, the artillery 
should march 100 paces within the 1st line of the cavalry; therefore, if 
the batteries were in position at the beginning of the movement, they 
limber to the rear, and follow the movement as here prescribed. 

Although, in figs. 102 to 110, the artillery is represented as being in the 
centre of the brigades, it may be concentrated at the centre of the division. 

RULES FOR FORMING IN ORDER OF BATTLE. 

General rules. — The employment of the diff"erent orders of battle, and 
their adaptation to the ground and circumstances, depend entirely upon 
the generals of division, unless it is specified in the instructions for the 
corps exactly how each division is to form. 

In all cases the generals of division are allowed to make the partial 
changes rendered necessary by the ground; besides which, a principal 
object is the choice of the most advantageous position for the artillery, 
as its success depends upon this choice. It is a general rule for the 
orders of battle, that the junior brigades and regiments of cavalry, and 
divisions and batteries of artillery, should be in front; an exception to 
this rule is made in the case of batteries of position, as they are always 
placed in the first line, the light batteries being in reserve. When the 
artillery is posted on the flanks of the line, the heavy batteries are on 
the right flank, the light on the left. As circumstances may render it 
necessary to employ one part of a division instead of another, changes 
may be made in the foregoing rules; but it is required that the regiments 
composing a brigade be kept together, unless it is absolutely impossible 
to avoid separating them. Thus, in the 1st order of battle, if the 2d 
regiment is in the 1st line, the 1st regiment should be in the 2d line, 
and the 3d and 4th in reserve. 

In the 2d order of battle, it may be permitted to compose the right 
wings of both lines of one brigade, and the left wings of the other 
brigade. 

A division forms into order of battle at the command of its chief, who 
designates as the directing subdivision either one of the squadrons of the 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. I99 

1st line, or the artillery, according to tlie ground and circumstances. 
The subdivision of direction is taken, in preference, nearest the new 
position of the troops. 

In forming into order of battle from column, or in passing from one 
order of battle to another, the shortest road should always be taken; 
never using, however, the individual oblique march, which should never 
be employed for more than one or two squadrons; the artillery may 
oblique. The preparatory formations, and the movements themselves, 
are made by brigade, or by regiment, according to circumstances. 

In all the general formations there should be an interval of 20 paces 
between the extreme pieces of artillery and the flanks of the nearest 
squadrons ; the interval between the pieces themselves is : in light bat- 
teries, 20 paces ; in heavy batteries, 25 paces. If there is no artillery 
on the flanks of the 1st line, the flanker, or lancer, squadrons of this line 
are not aligned upon the rest of the line, but are in rear of its flanks, as 
prescribed in the school of the regiment. 

Batteries, in front of the 1st line of cavalry, are always aligned upon 
the principal reserves of the skirmishers ; if there are no skirmishers 
thrown forward, or if they are recalled, and the cavalry does not close 
up on the batteries, the latter fall back somewhat, and take post at from 
100 to 120 paces in front of the 1st line. 

The distance between unlimbered batteries and the 1st line is always 
measured from the line of pieces to the front rank of the 1st line. 

Artillery in reserve is always placed in rear of the cavalry reserve. 

The tactics then proceed to describe the difi'erent methods of passing 
to the orders of battle from column ; of passing from one order of battle 
to another; of forming general column from the orders of battle. It 
then gives the application of the principles of the evolutions of the line 
to the orders of battle, under the following heads : advance in order of 
battle; retreat in order of battle; changes of front; passage of the line; 
the duties of skirmishers; of giving the commands. In all these cases 
the movements of the batteries are fully described. There is, in addi- 
tion, a supplement, giving the position of the artillery in the different 
formations of a corps of cavalry. 



200 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



CHAPTER III. 

EftUIPMENTS, ARMS, STABLES, HORSES, ETC., OF RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 

HORSE EQUIPMENTS. 

All the regular cavalry use the Hungarian saddle ; this will be fully 
described when treating of the Austrian cavalry, and it is necessary to 
mention here only that the tree is of wood, not covered, the seat formed 
by a leather strap about 4 inches wide, nailed to the forks, and secured 
to the side-boards by leather thongs. 

Light steel stirrups are used, the leathers passing through mortises in 
the side-boards. 

The cuirassiers use a swivel-stirrup, as shown in the 
annexed sketch ; it is spoken of as a good one. Crup- 
per and breast-straps of black leather. Girth of 
leather, and fastened by three small buckles : it 
passes over the tree and is secured to the side-boards 
by leather thongs. Two leather pouches are attached 
to the tree. Saddle-blanket of stout felt cloth ; four 
thicknesses are generally used, with a layer of thin 
black leather on top, the whole secured in form by 
leather thongs passed through and through ; if the 
horse falls off in condition, additional thicknesses of felt are used, and 
vice versa. The shoe-pouches are pockets sewed on to the leather cover 
of the saddle-blanket. 

This felt saddle-blanket is regarded by the Russian officers as the best 
possible arrangement. 

A small blanket is placed, folded, on the tree, under the schabraque. 
The schabraque is of thick woollen cloth, lined with coarse linen. Sur- 
cingle of leather, and fastens by means of ring and thong, in the fashion 
of a Mexican girth. Valise of cloth, not materially different from our 
own. Forage-bag of coarse white linen, open in the middle. 

Bridle and bits. — By all the regular cavalry a curb and snaffle are 
used, both of steel. There are three marked peculiarities in the curb- 
bit : it hooks to a ring at the end of the cheek-strap, as shown in the 
followin"- sketch ; the rings are attached to the branches by means of 
swivels; the branches are reversed, that is, their convexity is turned 
towards the front. 




THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



201 




With regard to the manner of fast- 
ening the bit to the head-stall, it will 
be perceived from the sketch that the 
little ring which is passed through the 
end of the hook of the branch, and 
rests against the flat side of the latter, 
eflfectually prevents the bit becoming 
unhooked, unless the ring is raised by 
the finger. 

The snaffle-bit, a plain one without 
horns, is fastened to the head-stall by a 
chain and toggle, like the centring-bits 
in the United States service. This ar- 
rangement of the curb and snaffle per- 
mits the men to feed their horses during 
short halts without inconvenience ; the 
Russian cavalry officers represent it as 
being every thing that can be desired. 
The curb-chain is of steel, and very heavy. There are three patterns of 
the curb used, of diflferent degrees of severity. 

The head-stall and reins are of black leather; no martingale. Crown- 
piece single, and has a spare curb-chain on top of it. Cheek-pieces 
buckle to the crown-piece, on each side, by one buckle. Each cheek- 
piece is a single strap, split at bottom to receive the rings by .means of 
which the bits are attached. 

The nose-band passes through loops on the cheek-pieces. 

Two plaited cords of black leather run diagonally across the horse's 
face, from the brow-band to the nose-band ; there is a leather rosette at 
their intersection. 

There is nothing peculiar about the halter ; by attaching the snaffle-bit 
and reins it becomes a watering-bridle ; halter-rope 9 feet long and half 
an inch in diameter. 

Forage-cord, for ixse when sent foraging, half an inch in diameter. 
Curry-comb and brushes large and coarse; brushes have the back and 
edges covered with black leather. Mane-combs of metal and of horn. 

Spurs of steel, and permanently screwed to the heel of the boot. 

Lancers have a lance-boot attached to each stirrup. 

The Cossack saddle has a thick padding under the side-boards and on 
the seat ; it places the man very high on his horse, so that his feet are 
always above the bottom of the belly. 

Their bridle has but the simple snaffle-bit, — no curb nor martingale. 

The Cossacks of the guard have spurs ; the others have whips, slung 
to the wrist, instead of spurs. 



202 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

The Mussulman cavalry make use of the well-known Oriental horse 
equipment. 

SADDLING AND PACKING. 

The tree heing girthed tight, the pouches are filled ; in these are placed 
the hatchet, curry-comb, brush, mane-comb, and other cleaning-utensils, 
with various small articles. The overcoat is then rolled into a long, thin 
roll, and strapped to the tree over the pouches; the roll falls down on 
each side, and is of such a length as to be just covered by the schabraque. 
If the uniform coat is to be carried on the saddle, it is placed as described 
for the overcoat. 

The small blanket is then folded and placed on the tree. 

The schabraque is put on and secured. 

The valise, containing shaving-utensils, soap, and under-clothes, is now 
strapped tightly to the cantle, over the schabraque. 

The forage-bag, containing habitually three days' rations, is strapped 
to the cantle, over the valise, and lies on the schabraque, falling down on 
each side between the valise and saddle. The stable-frock is carried 
either with the forage-bag or overcoat. 

The hay, made up in elliptical rings by hay ropes, is strapped to the 
cantle, and lies on the schabraque behind the man's leg. 

The forage-cord and halter are attached to the rear of the side-boards, 
under the schabraque. 

Spare boots are carried on top of the valise, under the flap, heels out- 
ward. The camp-kettle fits on the end of the valise, and is secured there 
by straps. One man of every three carries a copper camp-kettle as 
above ; every man a small hatchet ; one man in every platoon carries a 
spade, slung to the pommel, the blade in a leather case. 

ARMS AND ACCOUTREMENTS. 

Cuirassiers. — Steel helmet, breast and back pieces ; these are in some 
regiments of bright steel, in others gilt, in others painted black. 

Sabre, (pallasch,) a straight, flat, double-edged blade, 39 inches long; 
it is the sabre described in Thiroux, pp. 146-148, as the model of 
" L'an XI et XII ; " steel scabbard ; guard of brass, and of the basket form. 

Sabre-knot, a flat strap of brown leather. 

Sabre-belt, of white leather waist-belt, with slings — plate hooks, like 
those of United States officers — and is worn under the cuirass. 

Each man has one pistol, with percussion lock ; a cord is attached to a 
ring in the butt, and passes around the neck ; the pistol is carried in a 
holster on the waist-belt. This rule is general for all the cavalry. 

In each platoon are four men who act, when necessary, as skirmishers ; 
they are armed with rifled carbines, the barrels of which are about 
fifteen inches long; the carbine-sling is like that in use in the United 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



203 




States service, and is worn very short; the rammer is attached to the 
sling. 

A cartridge-box, holding twenty rounds, is slung over the left shoulder; 
the box is attached to the belt by swivels ; cap-pouch on cartridge-box 
belt on the breast. The front-rank men are armed with lances 10 i feet 
long; pennons on the lances. 

Lancers. — Lance 10 2 feet long ; pennons of same color as facings of the 
uniform ; sling of leather; point of lance seven inches long; a lance-boot 
attached to each stirrup. 

The sabre is three feet long in the blade; a little 
less curved, and rather broader and thinner, than 
the United States light-artillery sabre ; scabbard 
of steel ; guard with but one branch, and of steel. 

Sabre-knot as for cuirassiers. Sabre-belt of 
brown leather, and worn under the coat. Each 
man has one pistol, as for cuirassiers. Four men 
in each platoon carry rifled carbines, with a longer 
barrel than that of the cuirassiers ; these men 
have no lances. 

Cartridge-box as for cuirassiers. 

Hussars. — Sabre, sabre-belt, pistol, and car- 
tridge-box, as for lancers. Four men in each 
platoon carry a rifled carbine, the rest a smooth- 
bore carbine ; the carbine is always carried on 
the sling, there being no carbine-boot. Hussars 
have a sabretasch. 

Dragoons. — Each man of the first eight 
squadrons armed with sabre and musket; the 
9th and 10th squadrons armed as lancers. 

In the first eight squadrons the arms, &c., are 
as follows : 

Sabre blade and hilt as for hussars. 

The annexed sketch shows the peculiar ar- 
rangement of the scabbard and belt; the scab- 
bard being of leather, tipped with brass, the 
rings on the convex edge; bayonet-scabbard 
attached to flat side of the sabre-scabbard, by 
brass bands ; the belt, a Circassian shoulder-belt, 
without waist-belt, and of such a length that 
when the sabre is drawn the top of the scabbard 

is just under the left elbow; when the sabre is in the scabbard the hilt is 
between the elbow and the body. 

Smooth-bore musket, with the ordinary bayonet ; the piece about four 

13 



204: THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

inches shorter than the United States musket, and somewhat lighter ; it 
has a common musket-sling. It is usually carried in a water-proof gun- 
case, with a separate sling, over the right shoulder, muzzle up, barrel 
against the back ; this case opens by a slit under the stock, which is closed 
by straps and buckles ; the biitt end is sewed up. Cartridge-box carried 
as for hussars, but contains 40 rounds. 

The sergeants alone carry pistols. 

Cossacks of the guard. — Sabre and scabbard like those of the dragoons, 
except that there is no guard, and no bayonet-scabbard. Sabre-belt like 
that of hussars. Musket like that of dragoons, but no bayonet. Car- 
tridge-box like that of dragoons. Lance 10 J feet long, without pennon j 
instead of having a lance-bucket attached to the stirrup, a leather strap is 
fastened to the butt of the lance, and the foot run through the loop before 
placing it in the stirrup. Each man also carries a pistol on his waist-belt. 

Cossacks of the line of the Caucasus. — Sabre and scabbard as for the 
Cossacks of the guard ; sabre-belt like that of the dragoons. A long 
musket slung over the shoulder; cartridge-box as for Cossacks of the 
guard ; pipes for ten or twelve cartridges sewed on the breast of the coat. 
Two or more pistols, on waist-belt, and in holsters. A long, broad poniard. 
No lances. 

Tscherkesses. — Armed as Cossacks of the line of the Caucasus. The 
officers carry bows and arrows, to enable them to cut off sentinels without 
creating an alarm. 

Other Cossacks. — Usually armed with lance, sabre, and pistol. About 
ten men in every squadron carry muskets ; in some cases all the men have 
muskets. 

Mussuhnen of the guard. — Armed in the Oriental style. 

All the irregular cavalry carry their arms very close to the body, and 
so arranged as to make the least possible noise. 

Mounted gendarmes. — Sabre and belt like those of hussars. Dragoon 
musket ; bayonet-scabbard on the waist-belt ; cartridge-box on a shoulder- 
belt. Pistol carried either on the saddle or the waist-belt. 

Officers wear. a sabre similar to that of their men. 

HORSES, AND THE MANNER OF PURCHASING THEM. 

In each regiment of cavalry, and battery of artillery, the horses are all 
of the same color. 

The Russian cavalry is, probably, the best mounted in Europe, — certainly 
the best on the continent. The English heavy-cavalry horses may be 
somewhat better, but they have nothing for light cavalry to compare with 
the mass of the Russian animals for that purpose. The heavy-cavalry 
horses are mostly purchased in the provinces of Tamboff and Woron^ge, 
at an average price of $90 each. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 205 

The light-cavalry horses are obtained from the Ukraine and the steppes, 
at an average price of $4-5. 

The artillery horses are bought in all parts of the empire, at about the 
same rate as those for the light cavalry. 

There are no haras (breeding-studs) for the general service of the 
army. Thei'e is a commission charged with the general direction of the 
purchase, inspection, and distribution of remount horses. 

They, if necessary, establish sub-commissions, in convenient localities. 
The horses are purchased by cavalry officers detailed for the purpose, and 
are then, if practicable, inspected by the commission, or one of the sub- 
commissions. Having passed the inspection, they are distributed among 
the regiments, at the rate, in time of peace, of about 150 per regiment 
each year. The colonel of the regiment then distributes them among the 
squadrons, where they are broken in and drilled by the old soldiers, under 
the direction of the captain commanding. The Russians have nothing 
corresponding to the "captain instructor" of the French service. 

Horses are purchased at the age of from three to five years ; those pur- 
chased at three years old are not used for a year or more. 

About eight years' service is expected of a horse. 

Remount horses enter the squadron at from four months to one year 
from the commencement of their drilling ; depending-upon the age of the 
animal, his disposition, &c. 

Mares are preferred, as a general rule, but geldings and stallions are 
also used ; and it is stated that no particular inconvenience is found to 
result from the employment of stallions. 

The horses being once assigned always remain with the same men. 
Officers purchase their own horses, and are allowed forage, or a commu- 
tation therefor. 

RIDING-HOUSES. 

These are numerous, large, and well constructed. 

The windows are usually arranged as in the French; Russian stoves 
are freely used for warming them. 

The floor is of earth and sand. There is a wooden wainscot-lining, 
about six feet high, and having an inclination of about ^ ; the corners not 
rounded ofi". 

The riding-house of the Chevalier Guard, in St. Petersburg, is 300' 
long, 95' wide, and 25' ceiling. One near the Paul Palace is 595' long, 
126' wide, and 25' ceiling. The great riding-house at Moscow is much 
larger. The two latter are used for drills and inspections during the 
winter. There are no pillars in any of these. 

STABLES, ETC. 
There is nothing remarkable in the Russian stables. The floors are 



206 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

generally of plank, a little straw being kept under the horses' fore-feet 
during the day ; in some stables the floor is of clay. 

As a general rule, the simple swinging bar is used to separate the 
stalls; sometimes there is no division whatever; for wicked stallions the 
stalls are boarded up. 

In many cases they use no hay-rack, — merely a long wooden trough, 
one end of which is divided off for the oats. 

In some cases they use wooden or iron racks and mangers. 

In some stables a bin is arranged for the litter, under the manger; in 
others it is kept in the stable-yard, under cover. 

The saddles, bridles, and other equipments are usually kept in the 
stables ; the bridles being hung on pins attached to the stall-posts ; the 
saddles, blanket, &c., on a shelf extending between the heel-posts. 

Some of their stalls are six feet wide ; as a general rule they are quite 
large. The stables are well ventilated, and kept in good order. 

In some stables the quarters for the men are in the 2d story, over the 
stables. 

The horse-hospitals are usually in separate buildings, with separate box 
stalls, (about 9' X 7',) boilers for making mashes, &c. 

The horses are cleaned twice a day, watered twice or thrice, and fed 
three times. 

The daily ration for a light-cavalry horse is 9 pounds of hay, 11 quarts 
(13f pounds) of oats, 3 pounds of straw. The heavy-cavalry horses 
receive 2 quarts of oats more than the light-cavalry. 

The hay is generally chopped before being fed to the horses. 

The ration is increased with the difficulty of the service ; the above 
being a minimum for easy garrison service. 

The horses are shod in each squadron by its shoeing-smith. 

There is nothing peculiar in the shoes, which are light, but strong, 
and with small heels. 

FIELD SERVICE. 

In the field each horse carries, habitually, 3 days' rations of oats and 
hay. The animals are sometimes tied by the halter to a picket-rope, or 
a picket-stake, and sometimes fastened by the right fore-foot to a picket- 
rope on the ground. 

When picket-pins are used, they are cut by the men on the spot, or 
carried along if it is expected to encamp in a place destitute of timber. 
The Cossacks hobble their horses. 

The Russian cavalry do not spare their horses at drill, or on the march, 
but bestow all possible pains upon them in the stable, or in camp. In 
bivouac, or in camp, they are clothed with the saddle-blanket if the 
weather is bad and cold. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 20? 

The habitual gait on the march is the walk, of about 3i^ miles per hour; 
sometimes the trot is used ; every hour or so a halt of a few minutes is 
made, after which the men lead the horses for about three-quarters of a 
mile. An ordinary march is from 16 to 26 miles a day, depending on 
the nature of the country. 

The Cossacks regard a march of 45 miles as nothing extraordinary. 

After drill the horses are walked until they are cool. 

They are never unsaddled until quite cool. 

At squad drills, in warm weather, some men are present with buckets 
of water and sponges to wash out the horses' mouths occasionally. 

In the translation of the regulations for field service in time of peace 
and in time of war will be found much information in regard to these 
subjects. In the field, the cavalry carry 1 day's rations in a haversack. 

REMARKS UPON COSSACKS, DRAGOONS, LANCERS, ETC. 
There are two peculiarities which cannot fail to arrest the attention 
and command the reflection of the observer of the Russian cavalry; these 
are : the general division of the cavalry into regulars and irregulars ; and 
the corps of dragoons. 

The irregulars may be comprehended in the general name of Cossacks. 
Yet their peculiarities of armament, costume, and action are as varied as 
their origin ; while the sources of the latter are as multifarious as the 
tribes which compose the mass of Russian nationality, and the circum- 
stances which, through centuries of warfare, have finally united into one 
compact whole a multitude of conflicting and heterogeneous elements. But, 
with all this diversity, there are important and peculiar characteristics which 
pervade the mass, and are common to every individual, with as much uni- 
formity and certainty as that with which the firm government of the Czar 
is now extended over them. These peculiarities are : intelligence, quickness 
of vision, hearing, and all the senses; individuality; trustworthiness on duty; 
the power of enduring fatigue, privation, and the extreme? of climate ; great 
address in the use of weapons; strong feeling fox their common country; 
caution, united with courage capable of being excited to the highest pitch : 
in short, the combination of qualities necessary for partisan troops. The 
events of more than one campaign have proved, besides, that these irregulars 
can be used successfully in line against the best regular cavalry of Europe. 
Circumstances of geography and climate have given to these men a 
race of horses in every way adapted to their riders ; the Cossack horse 
is excelled by none in activity and hardiness. 

The Cossack neglects no opportunity of feeding his horse ; during short 
halts, even under fire, he gives him whatever is to be had ; the horse re- 
fuses nothing that is off"ered him, and eats whenever he has the oppor- 
tunity, for he has not acquired the pernicious habit of eating only at 



208 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

regular hours. Some idea may be formed of the power of endurance of 
the Cossacks and their horses fi'om the fact that, in a certain expedition 
against Khiva, there were 3,500 regular Russian troops and 1,200 
Cossacks : of the regulars but 1,000 returned, of the Cossacks but GO 
perished. 

The tendency of events, during the present century, has been to assimi- 
late the organization of the Cossacks to that of the regulars, to a certain 
extent: whether the effect of this has been to modify or destroy their 
valuable individual characteristics may yet remain to be proved in a 
general war; the events of the campaign of Hungary are said to in- 
dicate that more regularity of action has by no means impaired their 
efficiency. 

This brief description of the qualities of the irregular cavalry indicates 
at once the use made of them in war ; they watch, while the regulars 
repose. All the duty of advanced posts, patrols, reconnoissances, escort- 
ing trains, carrying despatches, acting as orderlies, &c., is performed in 
preference by the Cossacks; the consequence is, that, on the day of 
battle, the regular cavalry are brought upon the field in full force and 
undiminished vigor. Under cover of these active irregulars, a Russian 
army enjoys a degree of repose unknown to any other; while, on the 
other hand, it is difficult for their antagonists to secure their outposts and 
foil their stealthy movements. 

The rapidity and length of their marches are almost incredible; a 
march of 40 miles is a common thing ; they will make forced marches 
of 70 miles; in a thickly-settled country they have, in two days, made 
sis marches of ordinary cavalry without being discovered. 

In concluding this subject, it is impossible to repress the conviction 
that in many of the tribes of our frontier Indians, such as the Delawares, 
Kickapoos, &c., we possess the material for the formation of partisan 
troops fully equal to the Cossacks ; in the event of a serious war on this 
continent, their employment, under the i-egulations and restrictions neces- 
sary to restrain their tendency to unnecessary cruelty, would be produc- 
tive of most important advantages. 

In our contests with the hostile Indians, bodies of these men, com- 
manded by active and energetic regular officers, and supported by regular 
troops, would undoubtedly be of great service. 

The term dragoon was originally applied to troops who were at the 
same time cavalry and infantry. For example, the French dragoons of 
the time of Louis XIV. would on one day, as cavalry, meet and defeat 
the Imperial cuirassiers, and on the next day form the assaulting column 
in the attack of a breach. 

It is necessary not to confound the true dragoon with such troops as 
our mounted rifles, for instance, whose proper purpose is to use the horse 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 209 

merely as a means of rapid locomotion, alwaijs dismounting and figliting 
on foot upon reaching tlie scene of action. 

The Russian dragoons are the only real dragoons in the world; their 
arms, equipment, &c., have been heretofore described. 

They are principally employed in covering retreats, occupying isolated 
posts, making sudden attacks upon villages, &c. 

When they dismount to fight on foot, one man of every three remains 
mounted, and holds the horses of the others; one ofiicer remains mounted 
with each squadron. 

When dismounted, they conform to the infantry tactics. 

Since the 9th and 10th squadrons, armed as lancers, do not dismount, 
each regiment furnishes a battalion of about 800 infantry. 

The idea has been thoroughly carried out; for they are in reality good 
cavalry and good infantry. 

It is a question at least worthy of consideration, whether it would not 
be advantageous in the United States service to make real dragoons of 
the regiments now nominally so, employing them always in those portions 
of our territory where the Indians frequent the plains but retire to the 
mountains when hard pressed ; at the same time making the so-called 
cavalry regiments mere regiments of light cavalry, to act only on the 
plains, and not to be expected to fight on foot. 

The lances. of the frout rank of the cuirassiers are intended to be used 
only in close order ; while the lancer regiments proper are taught to use 
the lance both in close and open order. 

From the great use of the lance in the Russian service, it will be seen 
that it is a favorite Aveapon with them. 

I have been told by an old general of Cossacks, who served from Aus- 
terlitz to Paris, and against the Persians and Turks, that " the Cossack 
never uses his sabre, but depends altogether on his lance, and. uses his 
carbine only to give signals." He was also strongly in favor of snaffle- 
bits, sharp spurs, and Ealaklava charges. Nevertheless the chasseurs 
d'Afrique told marvellous stories of the expertness of the Cossack in the 
use of the musket on horseback ; and the Cossacks of the line of the 
Caucasus, engaged almost daily in hand-to-hand conflicts, have abandoned 
the lance, and they are more dreaded by the mountaineers of the Cau- 
casus than any other Ptussian troops. 

Against the Indians of our plains, who have no sabres, the far-reaching 
lance would no doubt be an effective weapon ; yet a light sabre would be 
about as much so, and far less in the way. 



210 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



EXPLAI^ATION OF SIGNS. 



— General of division. 

General of brigade. 

—Colonel. 

Commander of battalion. 

-Junior field officer. 

— Senior adjutant. 

Adjutant. 

-Officer with the markers. 

LI Division quartermaster. 

5 Captain. 

& ^First lieutenant. 

^ Second lieutenant. 

■ — Ensign. 

" Orderly sergeant. 

* ' Sergeant. 

*•■ Color-bearer. 

di Right guide. 

* Left guide. 

6 Right flank aligner. 

A Left flank aligner. 

B- - Marker. 

t^ Color-files. 



* — Skirmisher. 

* Riflemen. 

■ Drum major. 

^■" Band. 

I 

* Regimental chief horn-player. 

" Battalion chief horn-player. 

"■ Horn-player. 

* Regimental chief drummer. 

O- — Battalion chief drummer. 

■-" Drummer. 

* Fifer. 

H Column by platoons, right in front. 

H Column by platoons, left in front. 

S Double column on the centre platoon. 

^3 Column of attack. 

ITT 



-c=jmisB3a First regiment. 

BjJ i '>wrmtirt > z=i Secoud rcgimcnt. 

gJJ , '„.m iiiK gn — Third regiment. 

lAl I II' Fourth regiment. 

jE;£5>y//>yr^V:!^y>:^;£v=j_^^^^^^ First position. 

, Second position. 

[Final position. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 211 



CHAPTER lY. 

ON THE RUSSIAN INFANTRY. 

EXTRACTS FROM THE INFANTRY TACTICS. 

The habitual formation of the infantry is in three ranks ; from eight 
to three men are formed in two ranks; three or two men in one rank. 

A regiment may be composed of two, three, four, or five battalions, 
which are numbered as the 1st, 2d, 3d, &c. 

When the regiment is deployed in one line, the battalions are posted 
from right to left in the order of their numbers. 

Every battalion consists of four companies, arranged as follows : — 

In the grenadier regiments, of one grenadier and three fusileer com- 
panies ; in the infantry regiments, of one grenadier and three musketeer 
companies ; in the carbineer regiments and rifle battalions, of one car- 
bineer and three rifle companies. Sapper battalions are composed of four 
companies, called 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th sapper companies. In the in- 
terior garrison regiments, &c., the companies are known only by their 
numbers. 

In all the regiments the grenadier or carbineer companies bear the 
numbers of their respective battalions ; the other companies are numbered 
in a regular series through the whole regiment: e.g., in the first battalion 
the fusileer, musketeer, or rifle companies are numbered as 1st, 2d, and 
8d ; in the second battalion they are the 4th, 5th, and 6th ; and in a similar 
manner for the remaining battalions. 

Battalions may, exceptionally, consist of three companies. 

Grenadier and carbineer companies consist of men distinguished by 
their courage in battle, good conduct, zeal for their duties, and clear 
understanding of the drill. 

The men are arranged in each company according to height, the tallest 
third part being in the front rank, the next tallest in the rear rank, the 
remainder in the centre rank. 

In sizing the battalion, the companies are so arranged that the men in 
the right wing are sized from right to left, and those in the left wing 
from left to right, except the eighth platoon, which is also sized from 
right to left. 

Incomplete files are placed on the left flanks of the platoons ; if only 
one man is wanting in a file, the centre rank is left vacant. 



21Sr THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

The files are numbered from right to left in each platoon ; the men in 
each rank have the number of their file. 

Each platoon is divided into two half platoons ; that on the right is 
the first, the other is the second. 

Each platoon is also divided into sections of not less than four nor 
more than six files each. 

The sections are numbered from right to left. 

To equalize the platoons of a battalion, men may be transferred from 
one company to another; but the elite companies are kept distinct from 
the others. 

Platoons should not contain less than fourteen files; therefore, when 
a battalion consists of from 56 to 84 files, it is divided into four platoons ; 
if of from 84 to 112 files, into six platoons; if of more than 112 files, 
into eight platoons. 

Battalions of three companies are divided into six platoons, unless they 
contain less than eighty-four files, when they are divided into four pla- 
toons. The best-drilled men are placed, in preference, on the flanks of 
platoons, half platoons, and sections, then in the front rank; but the rule 
with regard to size must be violated as little and as imperceptibly as pos- 
sible. 

The ranks are twenty-eight inches apart, measured from heel to heel. 

The interval between battalions of the same regiment is twenty paces. 

The pace, when used as a measure in the infantry service, is two and 
a half feet, (30".) 

POSTS or THE OFFICERS. 

(Fig. 111.) The colonel, mounted, is from fifty to sixty paces in front 
of the centre of the regiment. 

The commanders of the battalions are thirty paces in front of the 
centres of their respective battalions. 

The battalion adjutant is on the right flank of the battalion, on the 
right of the field music; the junior field officer on the right of the bat- 
talion adjutant; the officer detailed as marker is on the right of the 
junior field officer of the first battalion; the regimental adjutant on the 
right of the marker; all these officers are mounted. 

In every battalion the officers are assigned to platoons as follows : 

The 1st platoon is commanded by the captain of the grenadier company. 

The 2d " " 1st lieut. " 1st 

The 3d " " captain " " 

The 4th " " 1st lieut. " 2d 

The 5th " " captain " " 

The 6th " " 1st lieut. " 3d 

The 7th " " captain '^ " 

The 8th " " 1st lieut. " grenadier 



213 



Formation of 

Fig. i: 



26'Faees 



[30 






ia BDoaoiD itadia 



2nd. Battalion 



The Grenadier company is divided — one platoon on 



lent. 



•30 



214 




I'tOileBSialion. 



Paces. 



t of the battalion, the other on the left. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 215 

The commanders of the first 7 platoons are posted on the right of the 
front rank of their platoons; the commander of the 5th platoon separates 
his platoon from the color-guard; the commander of the 8th platoon is 
on the left of its front rank, the next officer (the 2d lieutenant of the 
grenadier company) on the right of its front rank. 

The commander of the 1st platoon of each division commands the 
division ; the rest of the ofiicers are posted, as file-closers, two paces in 
rear of the rank of non-commissioned file-closers. 

POSTS OF THE SERGEANTS. 

The sergeants remain with their companies, but the number may be 
equalized among the platoons. 

In battalions of 8 platoons, when there are 25 or more files in each 
platoon, there must be at least 67 sergeants; if the platoons have less 
than 25 files, there must not be less than 59 sergeants. 

Any deficiency in the number of sergeants is made up by detailing the 
senior corporals as acting sergeants. 

The sergeants are posted as follows : 

1 as color-bearer. 

5 color-sergeants. 

1 sergeant separates the color-files from the 4th platoon. 

3 markers, whose posts and duties will be given hereafter. 

16 right and left guides of platoons : of these, 9 stand in the rear 
rank and cover the ofiicers posted in the front rank ; the remaining 7 left 
guides are in the rank of file-closers, behind the left files of their re- 
spective platoons. 

16 sergeants, called aligners, whose duty it is to mark the positions of 
the flanks of the platoons in new formations, are posted behind the second 
files from the flanks of each platoon; as far as regards the posting of these 
sergeants, the color-guard is not regarded as belonging either to the 4th 
or 5th platoon ; the rest of the sergeants are posted in the rank of file- 
closers, at equal intervals apart. Among this number are : 1, the orderly 
sergeants, who are the 2d file-closers from the right of the platoons, com- 
manded by their captains ; 2, the reserve and vice markers, (for whom 
see under the head of markers,) who are also posted as file-closers. 

The non-commissioned file-closers are two paces behind the rear rank. 

THE COLOR-GUARD. 

This consists of 6 color-sergeants and 4 color-files, (12 men.) The 
color-sergeants are selected from among those of the battalion who are 
most rigid in the performance of their duty, and who have the greatest 
regularity in marching ; they are selected of the same height as much as 
possible. 



216 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

The honor of bearing the color is reserved for the sergeant who has 
performed the most meritorious services, choosing, if possible, one who is 
decorated. The color-sergeants are formed in 2 ranks, — the color-bearer 
and 2 sergeants (one on each side of him) in the front rank, the remain- 
ing 3 in the rear rank ; as will be seen under the head of markers, the 
centre rank is filled by 3 sergeants, who are markers. 

The color-sergeants are posted in the centre of the battalion between 
the color-files, and belong to the 5th platoon, with which they execute all 
the movements. 

The sergeant covering the color-bearer in the rear rank is called the 
assistant. Ensigns may be detailed as assistants if sufiiciently well drilled. 

Two color-files are placed on each side of the color-sergeants ; they arc 
separated from the 4th platoon by a sergeant, but are alongside of the 
commander of the 5th platoon. 

In battalions of 6 platoons the color sergeants and files are as just ex- 
plained ; in battalions of 4 platoons the color-files are as before, but there 
are only 4 color-sergeants, of whom 1 is color-bearer, another on his left, 
the remaining 2 in the rear rank. 

Every battalion has a color. 

MARKERS. 

As markers there are selected adroit, active, and intelligent sergeants 
and privates, — in preference, those who can read and write. The rules 
observed in the choice of color-sergeants also apply to the markers. There 
should be 8 markers in each battalion, i.e. 2 for each company, of whom 
1 is a sergeant, the other a private; the privates are called vice markers. 
Of the 4 sergeants, 3 have guidons, but the 4th, called the i-eservc 
marker, has none. Those with guidons cover the color-sergeants in the 
centre rank; they wear no knapsacks, and carry the guidon-stafi" in the 
muzzle of their muskets. The three markers with guidons are numbered 
as 1, 2, and 3, from right to left; No. 1 marks the new position of the 
right flank of the battalion, No. 2 the centre. No. 3 the left flank : if the 
battalion is in column, they are similarly employed in marking the new 
position of the head of the column. 

The reserve and vice markers are in the general line of file-closers, 
armed and equipped as the rest of the battalion. 

In battalions of 6 platoons the markers are posted as just explained, 
but in those of 4 platoons those with guidons are in one rank, in rear of 
the centre of the 3d platoon, 2 paces behind the rank of non-commissioned 
file-closers. 

In regiments of more than two battalions an officer is detailed as 
marker ; his post has already been given. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 217 

When the regiments have but two battalions each, an oflBcer is detailed 
in each brigade as marker. 

A senior officer is always detailed in each division to direct the markers. 

MUSICIANS. 

The band is posted 4 paces on the right of the first battalion, on the 
alignment of the centre rank. 

The field music of the first battalion is on the right of the band ; in the 
other battalions it is 4 paces from the right flank of its battalion. 

THE GENERAL INSTRUCTION OF THE REGIMENT. 

The colonel, or, in his absence, the officer next in rank in the regiment, 
is responsible for the general instruction of the officers, sergeants, and 
men of the regiment. 

INSTRUCTION OF THE OFFICERS. 

Every officer must know every thing in the infantry tactics ; the mere 
knowledge is insufficient : they must be able to explain the rules, and 
teach the soldiers all that is required of them, beginning with the posi- 
tion, facings, marching, manual, &c. 

The colonel must maintain a constant eye to this, and assemble the 
officers himself, or cause the commanders of battalions to do so, for sepa- 
rate instruction. 

INSTRUCTION OF THE SERGEANTS. 

They are required to know every thing in the schools of the recruit and 
the company, the skirmish drill, and outpost duty ; they must also be able 
to instruct the men in these subjects, and must know their duties in the 
battalion drill. The captains are immediately responsible for this instruc- 
tion, under the supervision of the commanders of battalions. 

INSTRUCTION OF RECRUITS. 

The first year of a recruit's service is the most difficult, and the most 
important, as forming his future character as a soldier; his instruction in 
the drill ought not to be pressed until he fully comprehends the first 
principles. 

1st month. — Instruction similar to that of the cavalry recruit. 

2d month. — The recruits begin to learn to chant the signals for skir- 
mishers, commencing with the simplest ; they learn to march in common 
time, quick time, and the run ; are taught the skirmish drill without arms, 
first by commands, then by signals, always placing platoon opposite platoon, 
that they may the more readily understand the relation of their move- 
ments to the enemy. They are also taught some of the field duties, such 



218 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

as the nature of guard duty, of advanced posts, patrols, and the duty of 
a sentinel in the event of the aj^pearance of the enemy. 

Especial care is taken to exact a proper soldierly bearing only by 
degrees; for too much attention to it in the beginning produces stifi'ness 
in the position, facings, and marching, exhausts the men, and does more 
harm than good. Every day, except on days of rest and feasts, the 
recruits are assembled by companies, half an hour before dinner or 
supper, and the signals are blown for their instruction. 

Sd month. — -The recruits are carefully and correctly taught the facings, 
marching, loading as skirmishers without the motions. 

After this the instruction proceeds regularly, as laid down in the school 
of the recruit. 

There should be two drills each day ; each drill lasting not longer than 
from one hour to one hour and a half. 

The position of the soldier is essentially the same as in the United 
States tactics. 

The facings are made by turning on the left heel, steadying the cartridge- 
box with the right hand. 

The about-face is made to the left, instead of to the right ; instead of 
placing the right foot behind the left, it is carried forward until the heel 
is against the joint of the left great toe; the turn is made on both heels, 
and the right heel brought up on the same line with the left, on the com- 
pletion of the movement. 

MARCHING. 

The recruit is instructed in marching by the numbers, first in 3 motions, 
then in 2, finally in 1. 

TO MARCH IN THREE MOTIONS. 

\st motion. — (Fig. 112.) Without moving the body or hip, advance 
the left foot just clear of the right, the toe touching the ground, heel a 
little raised, knee straight. 

2d motion. — (Fig. 113.) Raise the left foot, and move it nearly 28 
inches in front of the right heel, knee straight, foot parallel to, and 10* 
inches above, the ground. 

3(/ motion. — (Fig. 114.) Incline the body gently forward, plant the 
left foot flat on the ground, 28 inches from the right, (from heel to heel,) 
rest the weight of the body on the left leg, and bring the right foot to 
the position shown in the engraving. 

The right foot is then advanced, by the motions, as described for the 
left foot. 

The recruit, being well instructed in marching in 8 motions, is required 
to execute the same thing in 2 motions : 

Ist motion. — Execute the first two motions of the preceding. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



219 




220 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 





Pm — = 



^<:s> 




THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 221 

2d motion. — Execute the tliird motion of the preceding, with the dif- 
ference that the right foot does not remain in rear, as shown in fig. 114, 
but is at once moved forward. 

The march in one motion is executed according to the principles just 
laid down. 

Common time is at the rate of from 70 to 72 steps per minute, each 
step 28 inches, from heel to heel. 

Quick time is at the rate of 110 steps per minute, and 28 inches long 

The free step differs from the last only in a free swinging of the arms 
being permitted ; the musket is carried at a slope, the right arm swinging 
freely, across the body, from the elbow down, in cadence with the step ; 
this step is much used, even when passing in review. 

The run is at the rate of 150 steps per minute, each step 28 inches ; 
the piece is carried at a trail, the left hand steadying the cartridge-box. 

The individual oblique stej) does not differ essentially from that in 
Scott's tactics. 

The route step is at the rate of 100 steps a minute, and is of the usual 
length of 28 inches, so that the men may march about 21 miles per hour. 
The men are permitted to carry their arms at will, and to move easily, it 
being only required that they keep their places, and do not lag behind ; 
if bayonets are fixed, the muzzles must be up. 

THE MANUAL OF ARMS. 

This is generally so similar to that in the United States service, that 
merely some exceptions need be noted. 

Present arms. — The piece is held in front of the left breast. 

CJiarge bayonet. — Lock-plate half turned up, the right hand (grasping 
the handle) is on the seam of the pants, the right arm being extended to 
very nearly its full length; hollow of the right foot against the left heel, 
(Fig. 115.) 

Right shoulder shift arms. — As in the United States rifle tactics, except 
that the right hand grasps the small of the stock. 

Slope arms. — The left hand is raised and thrown forward, so that the 
stock rests on the shoulder just above the guard, the barrel at an angle of 
about 45^ (Fig. 116.) 

Parade rest. — ^The feet are not moved, the barrel is thrown across the 
body, and rests in the hollow of the left forearm ; the hands on the gun- 
sling, left hand above the right. 

Figs. 117 to 120 show one method of saluting by a sentinel at an 
order. 

When the soldier hands his musket to the inspector, he holds it in his 

left hand, at arm's length, the piece vertical, the lock towards the inspector, 

the left hand grasping it just above the lock, (Fig. 121.) 

14 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



SCHOOL OF THE COMPANY. 



Each company of not less than 28 files is divided into 2 platoons ; if 
the company consists of less than 28 files, it composes only a single pla- 
toon. In the tactics a company of 2 platoons takes the name of division. 

(Fig. 122.) In an isolated company, the officers, sergeants, &c., are 
posted as follows : 

The captain 15 paces in advance of the centre; the senior lieutenant 
in the front rank on the right of the 1st platoon, which he commands; 
the 2d lieutenant on the left of the 2d platoon, which is his command ; 
the 3d lieutenant is in the front rank, between the platoons ; if there are 
other lieutenants, they are posted as file-closers, the senior behind the 
centre of the 1st platoon, the junior in rear of the 2d platoon. 

If there is a deficiency in the number of officers, other than file-closers, 
the number is made up by sergeants, beginning with the orderly sergeant. 
The sergeants are posted as follows : 

Four right and left guides of platoons ; when the company is in line, 
the right guide of the 1st and both guides of the 2d platoon are in the 
lear rank covering the officers ; but the left guide of the 1st platoon is in 
the rank of file-closers, behind the left file of his platoon. 

The 4 sergeants detailed as aligners (to mark the new front in the 
different formations) are behind the 2d files from the flanks of the 
platoons. 

The orderly sergeant is the 2d file-closer from the right of the 1st 
platoon. The remaining sergeants are posted as file-closers at equal 
intervals from those already mentioned. 

The drummers, fifers, and horn-players are formed in one rank, on the 
alignment of the centre rank, 4 paces from the right of the company. 

For instruction in the manual, &c., the company is sometimes formed 
on three sides of a square, each rank forming one side. 

In the different firings, the rear-rank men pass their pieces to those in 
front of them. 

The individual oblique step is never used for a distance greater than 
ten paces ; for oblique movements longer than that, each man half faces 
to the right or left. 

To wheel a division (company of two platoons) to the right, on a fixed 
pivot, the first platoon wheels to the right, and the second acts as pre- 
scribed in the United States tactics for the second company of a battalion 
changing front forward on the first company. The division also changes 
front on the centre. 

In route, troops march in column by platoons, half platoons, or sections. 
The distance between the ranks, in this case, is from three and a half to 
five feet. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 223 



OP SKIRMISHERS. 

Circumstances and the nature of the ground sometimes make it neces- 
sary for infantry to act in scattered parties, instead of in close, compact 
order; e.g., to occupy forests, copses, villages, or to protect diiferent 
movements of troops acting in close order, such as deployments, flank 
marches, movements in advance or retreat, &c. ; such service is called 
skirmishing. 

As entire regiments are seldom deployed as skirmishers, there are in 
each company forty-eight men who are perfectly instructed in that duty, 
and are called skirmishers. Of this number, twenty-four are held in con- 
stant readiness to act upon the first call for skirmishers, and are called 
active skirmishers; the remaining twenty-four are held in readiness to 
support or replace the others, in case of need, and are called reserve 
skirmishers. 

All the men of the regiment should, however, be instructed in skirmish 
drill. Each captain selects from his company the four sergeants and 
forty-eight privates who are most active and best fitted for the service of 
skirmishers, and submits their names, through his chief of battalion, for 
the approbation of the colonel; the latter, having satisfied himself 
that they possess the qualities and knowledge necessary for skirmishers, 
appoints them as such in regimental orders ; any vacancies are filled in 
the same manner. 

OF THE INSTRUCTIOX AND FORMATION OF SKIRMISHERS. 

It is necessary that a skirmisher should be active, quick, fully informed 
as to the object of his service, and a good marksman. 

Although the skirmish drill itself augments the activity of the soldier, 
yet it is very useful to oblige the men to climb fences and hedges 
promptly and actively ; to leap streams, ditches, &c., in addition to in- 
structing them in running, as a preparation for the drill. 

The soldier being accustomed to move and act in close order, it is 
necessary to impress upon him that, so soon as he finds himself in open 
order, he need no longer trouble himself about the step or alignment, 
but should execute every movement easily and lightly, turning his whole 
attention towards the enemy, thinking how to injure them most with the 
least inconvenience to himself, and availing himself of every feature of 
the ground for cover. 

For this purpose, in the instruction of skirmishers, the officers should 
turn their attention to the advantages to be taken of the ground, and 
explain to the men the manner of availing themselves of it : for example, 
if they have hillocks in front of them, they may lie down or kneel behind 
them; when attacking in a forest, they should advance from tree to tree, 



224 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

and, having thus arrived near the enemy, endeavor to inflict such injury 
upon him as to drive him from the place ; in a retreat through a forest, 
they should cover themselves behind trees and bushes, thus defending the 
position and their comrades ; they should also be instructed how to lie 
down in ditches, behind fences, hedges, &c., and how to use their weapons 
to advantage in all positions. 

If the signal to lie down is given in broken and covered ground, the 
officers must see that the men take the greatest advantage of the locality. 

The skirmishers must mutually support each other, concentrating their 
fire upon the points where they can do most damage to the enemy, as, 
e.g., upon the officers, on masses of men, on the men and horses with 
the artillery, upon the points to be attacked, and in the defence, upon 
points where the enemy presents himself in close order, such as cause- 
ways, bridges, hollow ways, &c. 

The skirmishers must be impressed with the conviction that the ar- 
tillery of the enemy can do them no harm; that in forests, ravines, 
behind ditches, &c., cavalry cannot injure them; in exposed positions 
they always have their own cavalry or infantry in close order to protect 
them. 

The men deployed as skirmishers must always be prepared to use the 
bayonet, especially against single horsemen. 

Although it has been said above that skirmishers should move and act 
freely, they should never lose their soldierly bearing. 

In skirmishing order the men are not permitted to converse; all noise, 
clamor, and even cheers, are strictly forbidden, unless special permission 
is given. 

The movements of skirmishers are made either at the free step or 
the run. 

The order of hatile, as shirmishers, consists of a chain of skirmishers, 
with a reserve in rear. The chain consists of pairs of men at a certain 
interval apart; this interval will vary with circumstances, but should 
never be greater than 15 paces. The intervals need not be equal, for 
each pair must seek shelter; the different pairs may be as much as 10 
paces in front or rear of the general line. In each pair, the rear-rank 
man is 2 paces to the right and 3 in rear of his front-rank man, whether 
moving or at a halt. 

The duty of the chain is to weaken and harass the enemy by a well- 
aimed fire, and thus prepare the way for a successful attack by the troops 
in close order, or to cover their movements. 

The reserve follows the movements of the chain at the distance of from 
80 to 150 paces, availing itself of whatever cover the ground affords ; it 
may be employed for protecting the flanks of the chain, or for turning 
those of the enemy. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



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Close column by platoons. 
Fig. 127. 

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Double column on centre platoon. 



Close column by divisions. 



Fig. 128. 






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Column of attack. 
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Fi- 132. 




Square formed from column of aUack. 
Fig. 133. 




Square formed from close columns by platoons — right in front. 
(For scale, see p. 227.) 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY, 

Fix. 134. 




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Square formed fi-oui doulile column on centre 
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229 



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Fig. 1.35. 




Formation of skirmishers in a square formed 
from deployed front. 




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Formation of skirmishers in a square formed 
from column of attack. 

(For scale, see p. 227.) 



=- B D- 






^30 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

Fig. 138. 



Formation of skirmish- 
ers in a close columa 
by platoons. 



Fig. 139. 



Formation of skirmish- 
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Fig. 140. 



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Formation of skirmishers in column of 
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(For scale, see p. 231.) 



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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 233 

Commands to skirmishers are given by the voice as much as possible. 
In close order, the active shirmishers are posted in the rear rank, 12 in 
each platoon, and on either flank; these 24 men, when ordered out as 
skirmishers, first form a platoon in 2 ranks, of whom one-half are de- 
ployed, the rest forming the reserve. 

The reserve skirmishers are also in the rear rank, 12 in each platoon. 

Skirmishers rally in circles to resist cavalry. 

A company may be formed either in square or circle for the same 
purpose. When the line in close order advances, the skirmishers fre- 
quently lie down, continue firing to the last moment, allow the line to 
pass over them, and then rise and take their places in the rear rank ; the 
line thus meeting the enemy in 3 ranks. 

SCHOOL OF THE BATTALION. 

The formation of the battalion, the posts of the officers, sergeants, &c., 
have already been given. 

In figs. 123, 124, are given the posts of the officers, sergeants, &c., in 
columns by platoons and by sections. 

In figs. 125 to 129 are given the formation of the different close 
columns employed; in close column the distance between subdivisions 
is 4 paces, measured from front rank to front rank. 

Columns are formed and deployed on the march as well as from 
a halt. 

In figs. 131 to 134 are given different squares. 

In fig. 130 is given the formation of a column by divisions, at half 
distance, for passing in review. 

In figs. 135 to 140 are given examples of a deployed line, columns,' 
and squares, with the skirmishers formed ready for action, if needed. 
The skirmishers sometimes move out directly through the captains' in- 
tervals. 

Fig. 141. The battalion is sometimes formed in a line of columns of 
companies by platoons in two ranks, the grenadier company being held 
in reserve; this formation is employed when the battalion is to operate in 
obstructed localities, such as forests, &c., when many skirmishers are to 
be employed. Each company column consists of 3 platoons, each in 2 
ranks; the 1st platoon is composed of the front and centre ranks of the 
1st platoon of the company; the 2d platoon, of the same ranks of the 2d 
platoon ; the 3d platoon, of the whole rear rank of the company. 

Fig. 142 gives the order of battle of a battalion thus formed. 

The square is moved in any direction without reducing it. When it 
is in retreat, the rear rank of the rear face occasionally halts, faces about, 
fires, and runs back to its place in the square. 



234 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

EVOLUTIONS OF THE LINE. 

Battalions may be formed in a deployed line, in line of columns, or in 
general column. 

The interval between battalions in a deployed line is 20 paces. 

A line of columns has either full or closed intervals. 

Full intervals are those which permit the battalions to deploy, and 
have the prescribed interval of 20 paces when the deployment is made. 

The closed intervals are 45 paces for battalions formed in double column 
on the centre platoon, and 20 paces for all other columns. 

A general column is one in which the battalions follow each other, 
every battalion being formed in columns; these may be open or close; in 
the first case, the distance from one battalion to another is platoon dis- 
tance, plus 20 paces; in the latter case, it is 8 paces. 

In general column the distance between battalions is counted from the 
line of non-commissioned file-closers of the last subdivision of one bat- 
talion to the front rank of the next battalion. 

Troops may be formed in one or several lines, and in one or two gene- 
ral columns. The distance between the lines, or columns, depends upon 
the ground and the judgment of the commander. 

For instruction in evolutions of the line the troops are usually formed 
in 2 lines; the first, either deployed or in columns; the second, 200 
paces in rear of the first, and usually in columns. The rules laid down 
in the cavalry tactics for the assignment of commanders to the lines 
apply here. 

The generals of division are 80 paces in front of the division de- 
ployed; generals of brigade, 50 paces; colonels, 30 paces in front of the 
centre of their commands. 

Figs. 143 to 147 give the positions of the commanders in various 
formations. 

The column of attack is usually employed in the various movements 
of changing front, passing defiles, &c., &c. 

ORDERS OF BATTLE AND OF RESERVE, AND GENERAL COLUMNS. 

When troops are formed in order of battle, or in general column, the 
muskets and guns should be loaded. 

An order of battle is an arrangement of troops which enables them to 
attack or defend themselves successfully. 

Infantry, with its artillery, may be formed in 4 orders of battle and 1 
of reserve, (figs. 148 to 172.) 

The orders of battle are named as follows : — 

The first, or ordinary order of battle. 

The second, or close order of battle. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



235 





236 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



Fig. 145. 



Fig. 146. 




Positions of commanders in a brigade formed in two 
lines of columns, with close intervals. 




Positions of commanders, &o., 
in a brigade formed in one 
general close column. 



Fig. 147. 



Paces. T-hi+U- 




Regiment in general close column, with loaded arms. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 237 

The third, or extended order of battle. 

The fourth, or reinforced order of battle. 

Each order of battle usually consists of 2 lines of battle and a reserve. 

The 1st and 2d orders of battle are peculiarly fundamental ; the large 
number of troops held in reserve renders it possible, without changing the 
order of the lines of battle, to pass to any other formation which circum- 
stances may render necessary. 

The 3d order of battle is nothing but a modification, according to cir- 
cumstances, of the 1st or 2d, in which a part, or even the whole, of the 
reserve, is employed to reinforce or extend the lines of battle. 

The 4th order of battle is also a modification, according to circum- 
stances, but with a difi"erent object, of the 1st or 2d. Here the lines of 
battle are drawn closer together, and one-half the reserve is employed to 
strengthen the 2d line of battle. 

The employment of the diiFerent orders of battle will be more fully 
explained under the head of their adaptation to the ground. 

General rules for the formation of the orders of battle from general 
column. — The orders of battle may be formed either with or without the 
employment of markers. The order of reserve is always formed with 
markers. 

If the order of battle is formed under fire of the enemy, then the 
positions of the battalions and batteries of the 1st line cannot be occupied 
by the markers beforehand. In this case the general commanding first 
establishes on the new line 1 or 2 battalions, and a part of the artillery, 
in the desired direction, and then, under cover of skirmishers, places the 
rest of the troops in position. The batteries first thrown into position to 
cover the formation of the infantry must remain at their posts until the 
completion of the formation, although they are not opposite their inter- 
vals ; they will move to their intervals by obliquing at a trot, when the 
line of battle first advances or retreats. 

The orders of battle will always be formed by means of markers : a, 
when the troops are taking up a position for bivouac ; h, when forming 
out of range of the enemy's fire ; and, finally, c, when taking up a new 
position in rear of that first occupied, during movements in retreat. 

In time of peace, troops will occasionally be exercised in the formations 
without employing markers. 

In general columns each battalion should be formed in double column 
on the centre platoon, closed in mass; the batteries in columns by sections. 

The distance between the parts of the column should be 20 paces. In 
general column the troops move with the free step. 

The remarks upon general columns in the cavalry tactics mostly apply 

to general columns of infantry. 

In the 1st, 2d, and 3d orders of battle, the distance between the two 

15 



238 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

lines of battle is 200 paces ; in the 4tli order of battle, it is 100 paces. 
The reserve is usually placed behind the centre of the lines of battle, and 
in one or two lines 60 paces apart; in the 1st, 2d, and 3d orders, the 
reserve is 400 paces from the 2d line of battle ; in the 4th order, 300 
paces. The distances between lines are estimated from the front rank of 
the leading platoon of one line to the same point of the other line. 

The general rule is that the junior regiments and brigades form the 1st 
line 3 circumstances may justify a departure from this rule. 

If there are any heavy batteries present, at least one should always be 
in the 1st line, so as to commence firing upon the enemy at the greatest 
possible distance. 

The formation of orders of battle near, or under the fire of, the enemy, 
should always be effected under cover of a line of skirmishers. 

Figs. 148 to 165 give the orders of battle and reserve for brigades 
and divisions composed of regiments of four battalions. In this case 
each regiment forms in two lines; the regiment on the right flank 
has its junior battalions in front; that on the left flank its senior bat- 
talions in front. The exceptions to this rule are found in the fourth 
order, where the regiment composing the centre of the second line is 
formed in one line, and in the reserves of the third and fourth orders, 
where the regiment in reserve is also formed in one line. 

Figs. 161 to 165 show the formation of four-battalion regiments in gene- 
ral column. 

Fio-s. 166 to 168 sive the order of reserve and the first and second 
orders of battle for a division composed of regiments having three bat- 
talions. 

Figs. 169 to 172 give the same things for a brigade of three-battalion 
regiments. 



APPLICATION OF THE ORDERS OF BATTLE TO THE GROUND. 

The orders of battle and of reserve, heretofore explained, should suffice 
as a basis for all formations of infantry and its artillery. In every iso- 
lated regiment, brigade, or division, its commander determines upon the 
formation most suitable to the ground and the purpose in view. 

The order of reserve is employed for troops in bivouac, out of action, 
or in reserve. In this order the troops are arranged with the smallest 
possible distances and intervals, in order to cover them, until coming into 
action, behind accidents of the ground, from the view and fire of the 
euemv; but all the parts are so arranged that any order of battle or general 
column can readily be formed, and any portion be detached without dis- 
turbing the general arrangement. 

The first order of battle may be used with equal advantage in attack 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



239 






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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 245 

and defence; it is employed, in preference, on open ground, or where the 
enemy can be most injured by the fire of deployed battalions. 

The second order of battle is of the same nature as the first, but it can 
be employed on all kinds of ground, on account of the facility with which 
the intervals between the battalions of the first line can be increased or 
diminished. It is most frequently used in actual combat, particularly 
where the ground does not present open plains, and where the troops 
should occupy a greater space than in the first order. 

The third order of battle is proper only for defence, on account of the 
great extent of the lines of battle, and the insignificance, or sometimes 
total absence, of a reserve. As a general rule, the use of the third order 
is admissible only in cases where it is possible to support it by strong 
reserves drawn from other troops, or where an extensive position is to be 
occupied, for the defence of which a weak line is suflicient. 

^ha fourth order of battle may be employed for an obstinate defence, or, 
particularly, for a vigorous and decisive attack upon the enemy with both 
lines of battle, which may in this case be regarded as one line, on account 
of their short distance apart. 

In all the orders of battle the 1st line of battle may be : (a) deployed, 
for defensive purposes, if the ground in front is favorable for the action 
of firearms in close order; (h) in columns doubled on the centre, either 
for attack or defence, if the ground in front permits the use of firearms 
only in open order. 

The 2d line of battle should always be formed in columns doubled on 
the centre, since its destination is rather to serve as a support, reinforce- 
ment, or relief to the first line, than to engage in the combat. 

The reserve is always formed in columns doubled on the centre platoon, 
until brought into action. 

The lines of battle and the reserve may be formed in squares, to resist 
cavalry. (Figs. 173 to 181.) 

Since the exact formation of the orders of battle, according to the 
tactics, is possible only in open and unobstructed countries, the generals 
are permitted to make such partial changes as circumstances may require. 

The skirmishers in front of the 1st line may be thrown far out, or 
drawn close in, but should be so placed as to be covered by the accidents 
of the ground from the fire of the enemy, and yet be able to injure him 
by their own fire. 

Those parts of the chain that are under cover should be thick, the 
exposed portions should be thin. 

The batteries serving in front of the 1st line should be posted at points 
which command the ground, and from which the whole space in front 
may be swept ; if such points are too far from the general position of the 
battery, they are occupied by detachments. 



246 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 




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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 249 

It follows from this that all the batteries need not be on the same line. 
The number of guns serving with the 1st line may be increased or 
diminished according to circumstances. 

In the 1st line several battalions may be thrown forward, or moved to 
one side, to secure a more advantageous position ; if one of the batteries 
of the 1st line moves to the right or left, on account of the ground or 
other circumstances, the battalion which happens to be in rear of it 
doubles the part screened by the battery, or forms into column ; if neces- 
sary, the general of brigade moves it to one side, provided the ground and 
the formation of the other troops permit. If the battery moves the dis- 
tance of a whole battalion front, the battalion may give up its place, and 
occupy a new position in rear of that first held by the battery. 

For these reasons, the intervals between the battalions are not always 
equal, nor is the line of battle necessarily straight. In open country, 
especially against an enemy superior in cavalry, the extreme battalions of 
the 2d line may be placed behind the outer flank battalions of the let 
line ; the foi*mation of the battalions of the 1st line may also be changed 
in conformity with circumstances and the ground, but without changing 
the general order of battle ; for this purpose some of the battalions of the 
1st line may be formed in line of company columns, for more convenient 
action as skirmishers. The distance between the two lines of battle, as 
well as that between the 2d line and the reserve, may be increased or 
diminished, so as to be able to cover the troops from the view and fire of 
the enemy, by means of the accidents of the ground. 

The reserve may be placed in rear of those points which, on account of 
their weakness, or being the key of the position, ought to be reinforced 
at once if vigorously attacked by the enemy ; during an attack the reserves 
follow in rear of the troops who are to attempt the key of the enemy's 
position ; such dispositions of the reserve should be carefully concealed 
from the enemy. 

If it is impossible, in such cases, to conceal the reserve behind acci- 
dents of the ground, it is best to post it behind the centre of the lines of 
battle. 

EXAMPLES OP THE APPLICATION OF THE ORDERS OF BATTLE TO THE 

GROUND. 

(Fig. 182.) Application of the 1st order of battle, by a division com- 
posed of regiments having four battalions. 

It is supposed that the enemy occupies the position A B. 

One division is to form in the 1st order of battle, on the position C D. 

The nature of the ground requires the following changes in the order 
of battle : 

Three companies of the battalion on the right flank of the 1st line 



250 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



occupy the village D, the fourth company remaining in reserve behind the 
village. 

Two pieces of the 1st light battery are also in this village, and enfilade 
the ravine B E. The battalion on the left flank of the 1st line approaches 
the woods C ; one company is detached to hold the woods. The battalion 



Fig. 182. 




Apijlication of the 1st order of battle to the ground, in the case of a division of regiments 

having 4 battalions. 

on the right flank of the second line approaches the village D, to support 
the battalion wliich holds it, should the enemy attack it. 

The reserve is posted on both sides of the main road, 500 paces from 
the 2d line. The remaining six pieces of the 1st light battery are with 
the reserve, on the road, in column by sections. 

(Fig. 183.) Application of the 1st order of battle, by a division com- 
posed of regiments having three battalions. 

It is supposed that the enemy is advancing in two columns, by the roads 
A B and C B. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



251 



One division, in the first order of battle, is to occupy the position D E. 
In conformity with the ground, the following modifications are made in 
the order of battle : 

The 2d heavy battery and the light battery form one general battery, 
and are posted on the height in front of the village F. 



Fig. 183. 




Apiiiii-nt'mn of Ihe 1st order of battle to the ground, in the case of .a division of regiments 

having '.i battalions. 

The light battery enfilades the road B C ; two guns of the heavy battery 
sweep the bridge j the remaining pieces of the heavy battery enfilade the 
road A B. 

The woods on the right flank of the position are occupied by one bat- 
talion of the 4th regiment, formed in company columns. 

To strengthen the left flank of the position, and defend the ford, there 
are placed in front of the windmill D four guns of the 1st heavy battery, 
and on the slope of the hill two battalions of the 2d regiment, in columns 
of attack ; the remaining battalion of this regiment, and all the battalions 



252 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



of the 1st regiment, compose the reserve, which is posted, in a hollow, 200 
paces behind the village F ; the remaining half battery of the 1st heavy 
battery is posted in rear of the 1st regiment, in column by sections. 

(Fig. 184.) Application of the 2d order of battle, by a division com- 
posed of regiments having three battalions. 

Fig. 184. 




Application of the 2d order of battle to the ground, in the case of a division of regiments 

having 3 battalions. 

The enemy occupies the position A B. 

One division, in the 2d order of battle, is to occupy the position C I). 
The nature of the locality requires the following modifications in the 
normal order of battle. 

The 2d heavy battery is posted on the hill to the right of the main 
road. All three battalions of the 4th regiment are on the left of the road, 
the 3d battalion being thrown back a little to withdraw it from the fire of 
the enemy's artillery; one company of this battalion, formed in company 
column, holds the wood C. The 1st battalion of the od regiment is on the 
right of the road, behind the right flank of the 2d heavy battery. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



253 



The reserve is posted in a hollow, iu rear of the left flank of the lines 
of battle, in order to be able to reinforce this flank should it be attacked. 

(Fig. 185.) Example of the application of the 3d order of battle, by a 
division composed of regiments having 4 battalions. 

Fig. 185. 




Application of the 3d order of battle to the ground, in the case of a division of regiments 

having 4 battalions. 



It is supposed that the enemy occupies the position A B. One division, 
in the 3d order of battle, is to hold the position C F D. 

The nature of the ground renders it necessary to make the following 
changes in the order of battle : 

The lines of battle consist of the 1st, 2d, and 3d regiments, the latter on 
the right. The 3d battalion of the 3d regiment, formed in company 
column, occupies the wood D ; the 4th battalion of the same regiment, 
formed in the same manner, holds the village E; the 3d battalion of the 
1st regiment, in column of attack, is behind the building F. 

16 



254 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

The 2d battalion of the 2d regiment is behind the gardens of the vil- 
lage C ; one company of this battalion occupies the gardens. The 2d light 
battery is posted down the hill-slope, between the 1st and 2d regiments. 

The 3d and 4th battalions of the 2d regiment are behind its 1st bat- 
talion. The 4th regiment composes the reserve, and is posted in a hollow 
in rear of the 2d battalion of the 1st regiment. 

Extracts from the regulations for the field service of infantry in time of 

peace. 

In time of peace, troops usually march by regiments, and in rare cases, 
for short distances, by brigades or divisions. 

The regiments seldom march entire, but generally by battalion, or by 
company, for greater convenience. 

Billeters are parties sent forward at the beginning of the day's march 
to secure quarters for the command ; they consist of 1 sergeant and 4 men 
per company, and 1 officer per regiment; also, for the regimental staff, a 
sergeant, 1 musician, 1 soldier of the train, 1 mechanic, and 1 hospital 
attendant. 

The billeters of an isolated battalion are under an officer, and have a 
party for the battalion staff. 

The billeters of a brigade are under its senior quartermaster. 

The sergeants have the company guidons. (See cut, p. 293.) 

When circumstances make it necessary to bake bread in advance of the 
troops, two parties of bakers are sent forward for the purpose ; each party 
consists of 1 sergeant and 8 men per company, with one officer for each 
regiment, or separate battalion. 

PREPARATIONS FOR THE MARCH. 

About an hour before starting, the general is beaten, as a signal to pre- 
pare to march. At this signal the men dress, and, if so directed, tuck 
inwards the skirts of the overcoats as high as the knees, and, if it is rainy 
weather, or muddy, tuck their pants in the boot-tops ; they then put on 
their accoutrements, the wagons are packed, and every thing is made ready 
for starting. 

When the assembly is beaten, the men put on their knapsacks, fall in at 
the various rendezvous, and the troops are then formed on the markers in 
the prescribed order. 

The wagons are formed on the left flank of the troops, or in their rear, 
according to the ground. With each money-wagon 1 sergeant and 2 men 
are detailed as a guard; the sergeant in front, and the men behind the 
wagon. 

Prayers are recited before leaving the general rendezvous. 

On the march, the following arrangements are made for the advanced 
and rear guards : 



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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 257 

(a) For a company, they are at 100 paces from it, and consist, each, of 
1 sergeant, 1 corporal, and 6 men. 

Parties less than a company, but having more than 6 files, send out 
advanced and rear guards of 1 corporal and 2 men, to the distance of 50 
paces. 

(6) For a battalion, they are at 150 paces, and consist respectively of a 
half platoon, commanded by an ofiicer, and have a drummer. 

(c) For a regiment, at 200 paces, and consist of a platoon each. The 
grenadier, rifle, and 5th platoons are not detailed on this duty. 

(d) For a brigade, at 300 paces, and consist of a company each. The 
grenadier and color companies are not liable to this detail. 

(e) For a division, at 400 paces, and consist of a battalion each. 
These guards are sent out from the main body as soon as it has left the 

town or camp where it passed the night. As soon as they have reached 
their positions, the commanders of the advanced and rear guards com- 
mand — 

PATROLS TO THE FRONT. 

Upon this, — 

(a) In the case of a company, the corporal, with 2 men behind him, 
places himself 25 paces in front of the advanced guard ; the remaining 4 
men form in 2 ranks, with the sergeant in front. In the rear guard, the 
corporal and 2 men fall back 25 paces. 

(i) In the case of a battalion, in the advanced guard 1 sergeant and 
the 2 flank files are detached as patrollers ; the sergeant conducts the 2 
front-rank men 50 paces to the front; the centre-rank men place them- 
selves on the sides of the road, 6 paces in front of the half platoon ; the 
rear-rank men, 6 paces in rear of it, also on the sides of the road. In the 
rear guard, the sergeant falls back 50 paces, with the rear- rank men of the 
flank files ; the centre-rank men fall back 6 paces, and place themselves 
on the sides of the road ; the front-rank men advance 6 paces. 

If the advanced and rear guards are formed by sections, then the patrol- 
lers place themselves opposite the flanks of the leading and rear sections. 

(c) Fig. 186. From the advanced and rear guards of a regiment, brigade, 
or division, patrollers are detached, as in the case of a battalion. 

As soon as the advanced and rear guards have quitted the main body 
to take their posts, the parties of the day are posted ; in these, the ofiicers 
do not draw sabres ; their posts are as follows : 

(a) In a company marching by itself, at 4 paces in rear of it comes the 
sergeant of the day, and 2 paces behind him are the 4 privates of the day, 
in one rank, having a drummer of the day on their right. There is 
another drummer of the day at the head of the company. 

(li) In a battalion marching by itself, the battalion officer of the day is 



258 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

4 paces in rear of the battalion ; 2 paces behind him are the 4 sergeants 
of the day, (1 for each company,) in one rank, with a drummer of the 
day on their right; 2 paces in rear of the sergeants are the 16 privates of 
the day, (4 for each company,) in four ranks, in the order of their 
companies. There is a drummer of the day at the head of the battalion, 
and another on the right of the color-guard. 

(c) In the march of a regiment, (Fig. 186,) the parties of the day 
are posted in each battalion as just explained ; the regimental officer 
of the day marches 4 paces in rear of the ambulances following the 
regiment. 

(f?) In the march of a brigade or division, the brigade or division officer 
of the day follows the officer of the day of the last regiment. 

In a division there is no brigade officer of the day. 

The brigade or division officers of the day are field officers. 

When the guards and the parties of the day have moved to their posts, 
the commander of the main body commands, — 

1. Unfix hayoneU. 2. Put on lock-covers. 

At these commands, the officers return sabres ; all the sergeants and 
men unfix bayonets and put on their lock-covers ; the colors are covered. 

If the overcoats are not already tucked up, it is now done, and in warm 
weather the coi-ners of the skirts are thrown back ; if it is wet, the pants 
are tucked in the boot-tops. 

In the advanced and rear guards, and the escorts of the money-wagons, 
the officers do not return sabres, nor do the men unfix bayonets or put on 
lock-covers; but they tuck up the overcoats, and arrange the pants at the 
same time with the main body. 

When the preparations are completed, the different parts of the main 
column close up and fill the places left vacant by the guards and the 
parties of the day. 

When the troops are ready to move, the commander directs the drum- 
mers of the day to beat the field march, on which the troops start at the 
route step, and in the order prescribed ; in the main body, arms are 
carried at will, but in the advanced and rear guards at a slope or on the 
right shoulder. 

In time of peace, the troops usually march by sections, right in front ; 
in the winter, through deep snow, they may march by the flank. 

If there are with the regiment recruits, supernumeraries, or weak men, 
they march, under an officer, behind the last battalion, having the party 
of the day in rear of them. 

The wagon-train is arranged as in the cavalry regulations. 
In the march of a battalion of sappers, the engineer-wagons are at the 
head of the other wagons. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 259 



RULES TO BE OBSERVED ON THE MARCH. 

The officers and sergeants on the directing flank must preserve the 
distances between the subdivisions of the column ; the men of the front 
rank must not be in advance of the guides. 

The ranks will march at from Ij to 2 paces apart. 

The men may march freely in ranks, but must not quit their places, 
nor straggle. 

On the march, the distances will be: between battalions, 50 paces; 
between regiments, 75 ; between brigades, 100 paces. 

On good roads the march should not be slower than 2t miles per 
hour. 

One-half of the road must be left clear for persons passing by. 

When passing over wooden or ponton bridges, the cadenced step will 
never be used. 

Before crossing rivers, the drums beat " the crossing." 

In warm weather the men unhook their collars, take off their stocks, 
and raise the chin-straps over the visors. 

The officers must always march at their posts, and never collect at the 
head or on the flanks of the column; in bad weather they may throw 
their cloaks over their shoulders, but they must never replace the helmet 
by the forage cap. 

On the march, the commanders of subdivisions must see that the men 
quit their places under no pretext, and that they do not feign fatigue. 
Some privates are sent with sick or tired men, and turn them over to the 
battalion officer of the day, and return to their posts. The battalion officer 
of the day then sends them, under charge of some of the privates of the 
day, to the surgeon of the day with the ambulances ; these privates of 
the day remain in rear until the first halt, or the end of the march, if 
there is no halt. 

It is the duty of the advanced guard to inform the commander of all 
obstacles encountered, and to take the proper measures for their re- 
moval. 

The rear guard take up all stragglers, and at the first halt, or at the 
end of the march, turn them over to the regimental officer of the day. 

That the men may rest, and set themselves to rights, a halt of 1 or 2 
nours' duration is made about midway in the march. 

If the march is long and difficult, two or more halts may be made. 

The places for halts must be dry, near water, and, in warm weather, in 
the shade of trees. Halts should not be made in villages, but near 
them. 

Having halted, arms are stacked, without fixing bayonets; the men 
take off their knapsacks and belts, remove their helmets, and put on their 



•260 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



forage caps; the drums are piled, and the colors leaned against them, 
(figs. 187, 188.) 

The parties of the day take oiF their knapsacks only ; in each company, 
one of their number is posted over the stacks. 

During the halt, the patrols and sentinels are relieved every 15 minutes. 

When several regiments are marching together, the colonels, at the end 
of a halt, give the order to take knapsacks, &c., in succession, so as not to 
disturb the men prematurely, but give them more time to rest. 

Fig. 188. 



Fig. 187. 





In addition to the main halt, short halts, of about 15 minutes' duration, 
are made soon after the beginning of the march, and at 3 or 4 miles after 
the main halt, to allow the men to put themselves to rights and satisfy 
the calls of nature. During these halts the men remain in the road, in 
the order of march, stack arms, and take off their knapsacks. 

It is a general rule to omit no opportunity of endeavoring to preserve 
the strength of the men, by always taking advantage of any slight chance 
of relieving them of their load ; therefore, in crossing a river, for instance, 
while the leading sections are crossing, those in rear should stack arms 
and take off their knapsacks. 

The troops at the tail of the column being more fatigued than those at 
the head, the regiments and battalions should alternate in their positions 
in the column during long marches. This rule should be particularly 
observed when the roads are bad. 



261 



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;s. 189, 190.J 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 260 

Further details as to the conduct of marches, the duties of billoters, 
&c., are to be found in the cavalry regulations. 

When the troops approach their quarters for the night, the officer com- 
manding the billeters goes out to meet them near the quarters, taking all 
his men with him, except one from each company, who remain at the 
company quarters with the guidons. 

When foot artillery is marching separately from the infantry, it sends 
out its own advanced and rear guards. 

In a brigade of foot artillery these guards consist, each, of 1 officer, 
1 drummer, 3 sergeants, and 20 men, at 200 paces from the batteries. 

They form in 3 ranks, and detach patrollers as a battalion of in- 
fantry. 

A single battery sends out an advanced and rear guard, each, of 1 ser- 
geant, 1 corporal, and 6 men, at 100 paces from the battery; they detach 
patrollers as prescribed for the advanced and rear guards of a company 
of infantry. 

In most respects the rules laid down for the march of horse artillery 
apply to the case of foot artillery 

The detachments march at their posts; but in deep snow they are 
allowed to follow the pieces. 

OP ENCAMPMENTS. 

The encampments of infantry may be arranged in two ways : in deep 
order, i.e. in columns of attack ; or with a deployed front. 

Figs. 189 to 192 show the order of encampment for regiments of 3 and 
4 battalions, in both ways. 

The encampments with a deployed front are used in warm climates, 
and especially in cases where the troops are to remain a long time in the 
same place. 

The allowance of tents is as follows: 1 for every field officer, 1 for 
every 2 company officers, 1 for every 15 sergeants and privates, 2 tents 
for field guard, 2 for the camp guard, 1 for the quarter guard. 

The details of encampments are as follows : — 

1. The tents of the companies of each battalion are placed in the tac- 
tical order of battle. 

2. In the deep order, the tents of each company are in 4 ranks ; in 
the deployed order, they are in 3 ranks. 

3. A square of 7 paces on each side is allowed for every tent. 

4. The intervals between the soldiers' tents are 4 paces. 

5. The camp-lines are 3 lines of sods, occupying a width of 4 paces, 
placed at the distance of 5 paces from the tents ; in the deployed order, 
they are only in front of the camp ; in the deep order, in front and on 
the flanks of each battalion. 



270 



THE ARMIES OF EUROTE. 



6. The pyramids of arms, (Fig. 193,) 1 for each battalion, are between 
the lines and the tents. In deep order, 6 pyramids are in front of each 
battalion, and 5 on each flank; in deployed order, there are 2 pyi-amids 
in front of each platoon. If the pyramids are not set up, the arms are 
stacked, in good weather. 

Fig. 194. 



Fiff. 193 




7. In the centre of each battalion, on the line of pyramids, the drums 
are piled on a stand, and the colors placed in a rack in front of them. 
(Fig. 194.) The drummers of the day place their drums on a separate 
stand, on the left of the colors. 

8. In the deployed camp of a single battalion, or in the 2d battalion 
of regiments of 3 battalions, an interval of 20 paces is left between the 
platoons of the color-company, for the tents of the camp guard. 

9. The tents of the company officers are 7 paces in rear of the soldiers' 
tents. 

10. Five paces farther in rear are the tents of the battalion com- 
manders and the junior field officers; the battalion commanders in rear 
of the centre of the right wing, the others in rear of the left wing of 
their respective battalions. 

11. The tent of the battalion adjutant is on the left of that of 
the battalion commander. If there is no junior field officer, the tent 
of the adjutant may occupy the place designated for that of the 
former. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 271 

12. The tents of the officers' servants are 4 paces in rear of those last 
mentioned. 

13. The tent of the colonel is behind the centre of the regiment, 25 
paces in rear of those of the officers' servants. The regimental adjutant 
on his left. 

14. The musicians' tents are 32 paces behind the tent of the colonel. 

15. Seven paces in rear of the musicians are placed the tents of the 
commissioned staff, i.e. the paymaster, quartermaster, surgeons, judge 
advocate, and chaplain ; in rear of these are their servants, the clerks of 
the regimental office, &c. 

16. In rear of these are the men of the company of the train; their 
commander is in front of them. 

The wagons are placed as ibllows : 

1. The money-wagon on the right of the colonel's tent. 

2. The cartridge-wagons with the field guard; in deployed order they 
are with the field guards of their respective battalions. 

3. The ambulances, wagons with hospital stores, medicine, and tools, 
the church-wagons, travelling forges, and other government wagons, also 
the artel and baggage wagons of the regimental staff, are placed, iu regi- 
ments of 3 battalions, on the right of the regimental staff; in regiments 
of 4 battalions, on both sides of it. These wagons are formed in 2 
ranks : in the front rank those belonging to the officers and men of the 
staff; in the 2d rank the government wagons. 

4. The wagons belonging to the battalion, such as : provision-wagons, 
tent, artel and officers' wagons, are placed in rear of the battalions, in 2 
ranks; in the front rank, the provision and tent wagons; in the rear 
rank, the artel and officers' wagons. 

5. In deployed order the wagons are placed as in deep order, except 
that they are in one rank. 

6. Behind the wagons, not nearer than 30 paces, are the kitchens, 
and near them the sod tables and seats for the men's messing. 

7. Forty paces in rear of the kitchens are the sinks. 
The quarter guard is 30 paces behind the line of sinks. 
According to the principles laid down above, iu deep order, the camp 

of a battalion occupies a front of 95 paces; for a regiment of 3 battalions, 
335 paces ; for a regiment of 4 battalions, 455 paces ; and the depth of 
such a camp is 340 paces, from the front lines to the sinks. 

In a deployed camp, a battalion occupies a front of 184 paces; a regi- 
ment of 3 battalions, 622 paces; a regiment of four battalions, 811 paces: 
the depth of such a camp is 268 paces. 

(Fig. 195.) In the camp of a sapper battalion, the engineer-wagons are 
in front of the others. 



zfA 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



Camp of a battalion of sappers. 



Camp of a heavy foot battery. 



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THE RUSSIAN ARMY, 



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274 • THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

Fig. 197 shows the arrangement of a park of pontons, with the camp 
of the company of sappers serving with it. 

Fig. 196 gives the details of the camp of a heavy battery ; that of a light 
battery differs from it only in having 2 tents less. When two batteries 
are encamped side by side, an interval of 25 paces is left for the camp 
guard. 

If the troops are in huts, instead of tents, they are arranged according 
to the rules for encampments, as shown in fig. 198. The battalions are 
arranged in columns of attack, each platoon having a separate hut. 

Many of the details of encampments, such as with regard to hospitals, 
&c., as given in the cavalry regulations, apply to the infantry. 

Fig. 199 shows the arrangement of a division of infantry, with its artil- 
lery, in a camp in deep order. 

Fig. 200 shows the arrangement of a similar camp for 2 divisions; the 
regiments are supposed to be of 4 battalions, the artillery brigades of 4 
batteries each. 

The rules and dimensions which have been given are to be regarded 
as standards, from which it is permitted to depart only in cases of abso- 
lute necessity; circumstances may require the intervals to be increased 
or diminished; the dispositiou of the artillery to be changed; the front 
of the camp to be on a broken line, &c., &c. 

To superintend the daily duty in camp, the following details are made 
in a regiment : 

1. A regimental officer of the day, who is one of the commanders of 
companies. 

2. A battalion officer of the day for each battalion, from among the 
lieutenants. 

3. In each company, 1 sergeant and 2 privates of the day. 

4. A drummer of the day in each battalion. 

5. Sergeants of the day in charge of the kitchens. 

In an isolated battalion a similar detail is made, except that the bat- 
talion officer of the day is one of the captains. 

In an isolated brigade there is a brigade officer of the day; in every 
division there is a division officer of the day, but none of brigade. 

These officers are from the number of battalion commanders and junior 
field officers. 

When there are several divisions in camp, there is a camp officer of 
the day, who is one of the commanders of the infantry brigades and regi- 
ments, or of the artillery brigades. 

If the commander approaches the camp, the privates of the day call 
out, ^'Parties of the day on the lines!" at which they take post as follows: 
the regimental officer of the day in front of the centre of the regiment, 
15 paces from the lines; the battalion officers of the day in front of the 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



ii 



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o Iliit of camp guard. 

I, Soldiers' huts. 

(• Cuuipany officers' huts. 

(I. Hut of junior field officers. 

(■ Hut of conunanders of huttalions. 

/'Jluts of battalion adjutants. 

7 Iluts of clerks. 

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i Hut of colonel. 

k Hut of regimental adjutant. 

I Kitchens. 

m Messing-buts. 

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o Stables. 

p Sinks. 



276 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



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278 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

colors, 8 paces from tlie lines; the sergeants and privates of tlie day at 
the guidons of their companies; the drummer of the day by his drum. 
(See Figs. 189 to 192.) 

or FIELD, CAMP, AND QUARTER 'GUARDS. 

(Figs. 189 to 192.) When encamped, infantry post field, camp, and 
quarter guards. The field guards protect the front of the camp by a 
chain of double sentinels; the quarter guards supply a chain of single 
sentinels in rear of the camp; the camp guards furnish the sentinels for 
the interior of the camp. 

In camps in deep order each regiment posts a field guard ; in deployed 
camps, each battalion; each regiment always posts a camp and quarter 
guard. 

Isolated battalions post field, camp, and quarter guards. 

The field guards are placed about 200 paces in front of the camp; the 
quarter guards not less than 30 paces behind the sinks. 

The chains of sentinels of the field and quarter guards are posted at 
from 75 to 100 paces from the guards; they should be drawn in on both 
flanks of the encampment. 

The sentinels' posts are about 100 paces apart. 

In the field guard the sentinels of the same pair are about 100 paces 
apart. 

The sentinels of the field and quarter guards carry their pieces at a 
shoulder. 

In the field chain the grenadiers, carbineers, and riflemen, do not stand 
in the same pair with men of the other companies. 

The camp guard is posted, in a separate battalion, in the interval be- 
tween the two wings; in regiments having two or four battalions, in the 
central interval of the regiment; in regiments of three battalions, in the 
interval between the wings of the centre battalion. 

By the camp guard sentinels are posted over the colors, arms, and at 
the tents of the colonels and battalion commanders. The sentinels over 
the colors, and at the tents of the battalion commanders, stand at an 
order; those over the arms and at the colonel's tent, at a shoulder. 

Men from the elite companies are posted over the colors. 

In camp the arms of all the guards are stacked. 

All the sentinels stand in front of the block on which their knapsacks 
are placed. If there is no block, the knapsack is laid on the ground, one 
pace in rear of the sentinel. In all cases the knapsack-flap is upwards, 
the top towards the sentinel, and the straps rolled on top. In each regi- 
ment, and also in each separate battalion, the field guard is senior to the 
others, which are subordinate to it in all things. In regiments encamped 
with deployed front, the diff'erent field guards are senior by turns. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 270 

If there is more than one regiment in camp, then one of the field 
guards is designated in turn as senior, and is called the ^' senior redant." 

The field guards of separate battalions are never detailed as senior 
redant. 

In encampments the following rules are observed with regard to the 
detail of men for guard duty : 

1. In a regiment the men are detailed from all the battalions; and in 
the battalions, from all the companies. 

2. Each guard consists of men of the same battalion, except in the 
camp guards of 4-battalion regiments, which are from two of the bat- 
talions. 

3. In deployed camps each battalion supplies its own field guard. 

4. Field and camp guards are commanded by officers; quarter guards, 
by sergeants. The senior ofiicers on guard are with the field guards; 
with the senior redant there are two ofiicers. 

5. There is a drummer with every field and camp guard ; if there are 
any riflemen on guard, then a horn-player is detailed ; when any of the 
grenadiers or carbineers are on guard, a fifer is also detailed. At the 
senior redant there are one drummer, one fifer, and one horn-player ; if 
any riflemen are present, there are two horn-players. 

At the guards the drums are laid on the ground ; the horns on the 
left side of the knapsack-block of the sentinel at the guard-tent. If both 
drummers and horn-players are present, the horns are laid on the drums. 

The regulations give minutely the strength of the various guards in 
all cases ; in this extract a few examples will be given. 

GUARDS IN A DEEP CAMP OF A SINGLE BATTALION. 

(«.) The field guard : 1 officer, 2 sergeants, 1 musician, 30 privates. 
The following sentinels are posted : 

At the guard-tent 1 

In the chain, 4 pairs of sentinels 8 

9 men in each relief. 

For 3 reliefs 27 

Corporals for posting reliefs 2 

Private as orderly 1 

Total 30 

One of the sergeants makes the necessary reports, 
(i.) The camp guard : 1 officer, 2 sergeants, 1 musician, 24 privates. 
This guard posts the following sentinels : 

17 



280 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. ■ 

At the guard-tents 1 

Over the color 1 

Over the arms 4 

Over the tent of battalion commander 1 

7 men in each relief. 

For 3 reliefs 21 

Corporals to relieve sentinels 2 

Private, as orderly 1 

Total 24 

For a sapper battalion, 3 extra men may be detailed to furnish a senti- 
nel over the engineer-wagons. 

(c.) The quarter guard : 1 sergeant, 20 privates. 
The following sentinels are posted : 

At the guard-tent 1 

In the chain, 4 posts 4 



5 men in each relief. 



For 3 reliefs 15 

Corporal to post sentinels 1 

Corporal to make reports 1 

Sentinels over prisoners 3 

Total 20 



GUARDS IN A DEPLOYED CAMP OF A REGIMENT HAVING FOUR BAT- 
TALIONS. 

(«.) The field guard in each battalion : 1 officer, 3 sergeants, 1 musi- 
cian, 22 privates. 

Each field guard posts the following sentinels : 

At the guard-tents 1 

In the chain, 3 pairs of sentinels 6 



7 men in each relief 



For 3 reliefs 21 

Private, as orderly 1 

Total 22 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 281 

(5.) The camp guard : 1 officer, 2 sergeants, 1 musician, 59 privates. 
This guai-d posts the following sentinels : 

At the guard-tents 1 

Over the colors 4 

Over the arms 8 

Over the tents of commanders 5 



18 men in each relief. 



For 3 reliefs 54 

Corporals for posting reliefs 4 

Private, as orderly 1 

Total 59 

(c.) Quarter guard : 2 sergeants, 89 privates. 

It posts the following sentinels : 

At the guard-tents 1 

In the chain, 10 posts 10 



11 men in each relief. 



For 3 reliefs 33 

Corporals to post reliefs 2 

Corporal to make reports 1 

Over the prisoners 3 

Total 39 



The corporals are not regarded as non-commissioned officers; and, iu 
addition to those mentioned above, others are posted as sentinels at the 
tents of commanders, &c. 

In camp, prisoners are confined — officers at the camp guard, sergeants 
;ind privates at the quarter guard. There is always a sentinel, at an 
order, posted over the tent in which an officer or soldier is confined. The 
commander-in-chief may replace the camp and quarter guards by ser- 
geants' pickets. 

The picket which replaces the camp guard will be of the following 
strength : 

In a separate battalion, 1 sergeant and 10 men. 

In a regiment of four battalions, 1 sergeant and 19 men. 

If there are prisoners under the charge of the picket, 3 men are added 
10 the numbers given above. 



282 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



The strength of the picket which replaces the quarter guard must 

depend upon circumstances and the number of prisoners under its charge. 

In addition to the guards ah-eady mentioned, special guards are detailed 

for those villages near the camp which are occupied as depots, quarters 

for staff officers, &c. 

The guards detailed by foot artillery do not differ essentially from those 
prescribed for horse artillery in the cavalry regulations. 

The guard detailed by a company of sappers serving with a ponton- 
train is of 1 sergeant and 20 men, as follows : 

At the guard-tent 1 

Over the arms 2 

Over the ponton-park 2 

At the commander's tent 1 

6 men in each relief. 

For three reliefs 18 

Corporal to post sentinels 1 

Corporal to make reports 1 

Total 20 

Under ordinary circumstances, the sentinels are relieved every two 
hours. 

The general rules for the performance of duty in camp, patrols, rounds, 
care of arms, reports, alarms, precautions against fires, &c., &c., as given 
in the cavalry regulations, apply to the case of infantry. 



Fia-. 201. 



BIVOUACS. 

Troops are said to bivouac when they pass the night 
in the open air, or under shelters hastily constructed 
of branches, brush, straw, &c. 

When infantry are to bivouac, (fig. 198,) they are 
formed on the ground they are to occupy in columns 
of attack, but the distances between the platoons must 
not be less than 20 paces, and the men open out well in 
ranks; they then stack arms where they stand, hang 
their belts and helmets on the stacks, (fig. 201,) and 
lay the knapsacks on the ground behind the stacks. 

In this manner the bivouac of a battalion occupies 
a front of 60 paces and a depth of 80. 

In bivouac the colors remain at their posts, — i.e 
between the stacks of the 4th and 5th platoons, — lean- 
ing against the front of the pile of drums. 




THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



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284 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



Bivouac of a regiment of 4 battalions. 
Fig. 203. 



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(For references, see p. 283.) 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 285 

The officers, band, and field music, are placed in rear of the battalions 

Fig. 202 shows the arrangement of a bivouac which is to be occupied for 
some time, and when the men are permitted to erect shelters. 

In this case, as soon as the stacks are formed and the accoutrements 
hung upon them, the half battalions face outwards, march out clear of 
the stacks, and then face again to the front. 

This manner of arranging the bivouac offers the advantage of giving 
the men more room, but presents the inconvenience of requiring more 
ground, for each battalion occupies a front of 120 paces ; this method can 
therefore be employed only when the ground permits a great development. 
In bivouac, the shelters should be arranged with a certain regularity, 
leaving free passages between them. 

Although, in figs. 202, 203, particular dimensions are given for the 
front and depth of the bivouacs of battalions and the intervals between 
them, yet, whenever circumstances permit, these dimensions may be 
increased, so as to give the men more room ; but these dimensions should 
never be decreased. 

Regiments of 3 battalions bivouac in one line ; those of 4 battalions, in 
two lines, 140 paces apart, counting between the heads of the battalions. 

Batteries are placed in bivouac either deployed or in column, as shown 
in figs. 204, 205. 

In the front line, artillery bivouacs 120 paces in front of the infantry, 
and is deployed ; in the rear line and reserves, it may be placed behind 
the infantry, in columns by half batteries. 

The front of the bivouac of a deployed battery is 120 paces ; when in 
column, by half batteries, it is 60 paces. 

An interval of 40 paces is left between the bivouacs of batteries and 
the nearest battalions. 

When in rear of the infantry, artillery is not placed less than 100 paces 
from it, counting from the rear of the infantry to the line of guns. 

Batteries in bivouac in front of infantry, even if in reserve, should 
always be unlimbered; those in rear of the infantry should always be 
limbered up. 

Figs. 206 to 211 give examples of the arrangement of the bivouacs of 
brigades and divisions, both in the line of battle and in reserve. 

The examples of bivouacs given should be regarded only as guides; 
for the ground, and other circumstances, may often make it necessary to 
depart from them, both in the distribution of the troops and with regard 
t.0 the intervals between them. 

The troops of the advanced guard, when in sight of the enemy, always 
bivouac in the order of battle ; therefore the arrangements of their 
bivouac must depend upon the nature of the ground, and cannot be de- 
termined by any arbitrary rules. 



286 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



Bivouac of a hattery deployed. 



Fi-. 201. 



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(For references, see p. 287.) 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



287 



Bivouac of a hattery in column. 



Fi?. 205. 



an. 





a Line of pieces. 

h Line of limbers, 

c Line of caissons. 

d Line of artillery-wagons. 

e Bivouac of soldiers. 

/ Bivouac of battery officers. 

fj Bivouac of 2d in command. 

h Bivouac of commander of the battery. 

{ Drummers and meclianics. 

k Camp guard. 

I Baggage-wagons. 

m Harness. 

n Picket-ropes. 

o Forage-stacks. 

^i --Officer of the day. 

Sergeant and privates of the day. 

i Sentinels. 



4 



-Bivoaac-fires. 



— TJ 



(For scale, see p. 286.) 



288 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



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THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



289 



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THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



Bivouac of a division of regiments of 3 battalions. 



Tig. 209. 

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J 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



291 



Bivouac of a division of 
S-hat(alion regiments. 



Fig. 210. 

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292 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

If the troops are to pass the night in readiness for action, they are 
placed in bivouac a little in rear of the position for battle ; the different 
parts may also be closed a little nearer together, so as to hold them better 
in hand. 

In bivouac, the cartridge-wagons of the advanced guard and lines of 
battle are placed with the quarter guards, instead of with the field guards; 
in this case, care must be taken to have the kitchen and other fires at a safe 
distance. 

The rest of the wagons are arranged as prescribed in the cavalry regu- 
lations. 

In bivouac, guards are posted as in encampments, observing what follows : 

1. In divisions arranged in two lines, (figs. 208, 209,) the regiments 
of the 1st line post field guards, those of the 2d line post quarter guards; 
in addition, there may be, if necessary, sergeants' guards on the flanks, 
to connect the chains of the field and quarter guards. 

2. In divisions posted in reserve, (figs. 210, 211,) the 4th regiment 
posts field guards, the 1st regiment posts quarter guards, the 2d and 3d 
post field guards on the flanks. 

3. Camp guards are 10 paces in front of the centre of the troops post- 
ing them. 

4. In regiments of 4 battalions, arranged in 2 lines, the camp guard is 
posted opposite the interval between the battalions of the 1st line; if 
there is a battery in this interval, the guard is posted on its right. 

5. The sentinels posted over the arms, at the angles of the battalions, 
(figs. 202, 203,) are arranged as in encampments, with the difference, that, 
for a regiment of 4 battalions, in two lines, (fig. 203,) two posts are 
necessary for the exterior angles of the 2d and 3d battalions. 

6. In bivouac, there is a sentinel at the hut of the battalion commander. 
A guard may be posted at the quarters of detached commanders. 

In all other respects the rules for cavalry bivouacs apply to those Ci^' 
infantry. 

ARMS, ACCOUTREMENTS, ETC., OF THE INFANTRY. 

The mass of the infantry ai*e armed simply with the musket and bayonet; 
all sergeants, some of the regiments of the guard, and the elite companies 
of all regiments, have a short sabre. 

The rifle battalion have a rifle, with sword bayonet. 

In the old pattern of belts, still in general use, there were two thin, 
broad shoulder-belts, — one for the cartridge-box, the other for the bayonet 
and sword scabbards; the cap-pouch on the front of the cartridge-box 
belt ; no waist-belt. 

In the new pattern, there is a single shoulder-belt for the cartridge-box, 
and a waist-belt, to which the bayonet and sword scabbards are attached; 
the cap-pouch is on the end of the cartridge-box. 



THE RUSSIAN ARMY. 



293 





The cartridge-box contains 60 rounds. 

The knapsack is of hide, with the hair outside ; it has two belts, cross- 
ing on the breast, and attached to the knapsack by swivels. 
Yia. 212 ^^^ canteen is a tin 

/v bottle, of the shape and 

I dimensions given in fig. 

J 213 ; it has a tin cover 

which serves as a cup ; it 
is carried strapped to the 
back of the knapsack, as 
shown in fig. 212. 

The uniform coat, or 
overcoat, is carried, in a 
water-proof cylinder, on top of the knap- 
sack ; the forage cap in a linen pocket 
on the front of the knapsack. 

In the knapsack are carried : 2 shirts, 
1 pair drawers, 2 extra pieces of linen for 
wrapping the feet, leather for 1 pair of 
-boots, 3 brushes, 1 pair of summer or 
winter pants, and 4 days' bread or biscuit. 
There is a little pocket in the knapsack 
for a small rectangular tin box, containing spare percussion-caps. 

The wiper, screw-driver, and ball-screw are carried in the cartridge- 
box. 

In the cartridge-wagons, 4 to each battalion, there are carried 40 
rounds extra for each man. 

The officers have a light sabre, with a leather scabbard. 
The field music have drums and horns; the elite companies have fifes. 
The drums are of brass, 18" in diameter, 12" deep. 

The transportation usually allowed is as follows : 1 small wagon for the 
officers of each company ; 2 for the soldiers' tents ; 2 for 6 days' bread. 
Cattle are driven on the hoof. 

The old troops are seldom drilled, and are annoyed as little as possible ; 
target-firing is much practised. 

The ordinary length of march is from 13 to 17 miles a day; it is usual 
to halt one day out of every three or four. 



Sergeant of billeters. 



THE MILTTIA. 



The organization of the militia dates from the commencement of the 
recent war. They were, in fact, battalions of regular troops, raised foi 
the period of the war, and with certain peculiarities of organization and 
equipment to distinguish them from the standing army. They were 



294 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

organized in battalions, of a composition similar to those of the old army, 
but were not necessarily formed into regiments. 

The men were mostly serfs and crown peasants; the sergeants generally 
from the old army; the officers had for the most part served in the old 
army, and were principally selected from among the number of those who 
had resigned their commissions or had been granted unlimited furloughs. 

The old troops were much employed as drill-masters for the militia. 

UNIFORM. 

The dress of the militia was eminently national, having little or nothing 
in common with the usual uniforms of Europe. 

The coat, a Russian caftan, or long, loose, double-breasted frock-coat, 
with no buttons visible. 

The pants always tucked in the boot-tops. 

The cap, not unlike the forage cap in use in the United States army 
during the Mexican War, except that the top was somewhat higher and 
stiffer, and the visor larger ; the only ornament upon the cap a brazen 
Greek cross. 

The coat, pants, and cap always of the same color; which was generally 
a dark shade of brownish gray, sometimes almost black. 

The facings usually of some very dark color. 

Instead of overcoats, they had blankets. 

The men were not required to crop the hair, nor to shave the beard ; 
both being worn long and full in the Russian style. 

The uniform of the officers was similar to that of the men. 

ARMS AND EQUIPMENT. 

On account of the deficiency in the number of percussion muskets, 
many of the battalions were armed with the flint-lock muskets. 

The only belt was a black leather waist-belt, fastening by a buckle in 
front. To this were attached : a cartridge-box of black leather, without 
a frame; the bayonet-scabbard; and a leather case, containing a small 
hand-axe. 

Knapsack of black leather, and without frame; it was secured by 
means of belts and swivels, as described for the knapsack of the old army. 

Considering the very short time these troops had been in service, their 
appearance and drill were very creditable, and they would, no doubt, have 
proved to be very efficient troops. 

There were large numbers of them at St. Petersburg and on the shores 
of the Baltic. 



PRUSSIAN CAVALRY. 295 



PRUSSIAN CAVALRY. 



ORGANIZATION. 

^ The war establishment of the Prussian cavalry consists of the standing 
army, the landwehr of the first levy, that of the second levy, the depot 
squadrons, and the landsturm. 

All able-bodied men, whatever their rank in life, are required to serve 
5 years in the standing army, from their 20th to their 25th year. Of 
these 5 years, the first 3 are passed with their regiments; during the last 
2 they are permitted to return to their homes and compose the reserve of 
the standing army, being liable to be called to join their regiments at any 
moment, in the event of a war or other exigency. 

They then pass into the landwehr of the 1st levy for 7 years ; then, for 
7 more, into the landwehr of the 2d levy ) after which, they belong to the 
landsturm. 

The standing army, performs garrison duty in time of peace. As a 
general rule, the regiments are stationed in the districts where they are 
recruited, unless there are special political reasons to the contrary. 

The landwehr of the 1st levy is at once called out, upon the commence- 
ment of a war, to reinforce the standing army and co-operate with it ; its 
organization and composition are identical with those of the latter, there 
l^eing a regiment of landwehr cavalry to correspond to every one of the 
cavalry of the line, and 2 landwehr regiments of the guard. In war they 
are usually brigaded together ; thus the 2d hussars of the line and the 
2d hussars of the landwehr belong to the same brigade. 

In peace, this levy is called out for drills and manoeuvres 2 weeks in 
each year ; at other times merely a skeleton, consisting of 1 captain of the 
line, 2 non-commissioned ofiicers, and 2 men, is kept at the depot maga- 
zine of each landwehr regiment, the complete clothing, armament, and 
equipment of the regiment being kept in these magazines. 

The landwehr of the 2d levy is not quite so numerous as that of the 
Ist. It is called out only in time of war, and is then employed in service 
in the interior, or, if necessary, to reinforce the active army. 

The landsturm has no regular organization; it is called out only to repel 

18 



296 ' THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

invasion, and consists of all men less than 50 years old not in the army 
or landwehr. 

The depot squadrons are organized only in time of war. They consist 
of supernumeraries from the reserve, men drafted from the landwehr, 
and recruits who are to be drilled 6 months before joining their regiments. 

Every regiment of the cavalry of the standing army has one depot 
squadron in war ; those of the guard are of the same strength as the 
active squadrons; those of the line are 200 strong, since thoy serve as 
depots for the corresponding regiments of landwehr of the first levy as 
well as for those of the line. One hundred and twenty-five men and 
horses belong to the line regiment ; the remaining 75 are for the landwehr. 

The war strength of these difl'erent kinds of cavalry amounts to 440 
squadrons, — 2,400 officers and about 65,000 men and horses; this is 
exclusive of the landsturm. 

The cavalry of the standing army consists of 38 regiments, of which 
6 belong to the guards, 32 to the line. 

The guard regiments are : 2 regiments of cuirassiers, 1 of dragoons, 2 
of lancers, and 1 of hussars. 

The line regiments are : 8 of cuirassiers, 4 of dragoons, 8 of lancers, 
and 12 of hussars. 

Each regiment consists of 4 active squadrons. 

Each squadron of the line regiments is composed of: 

1 captain. 

1 first lieutenant. 

3 second lieutenants. 

1 orderly sergeant. 

1 ensign, a non-commissioned officer in the line of promotion. 

1 quartermaster, a sergeant. 

12 sergeants. 

3 trumpeters. 

127 privates, among whom are 20 corporals and re-enlisted soldiers : — 
145 men and horses, exclusive of officers. 

The regimental stafi" consists of 1 colonel, 1 junior field officer, 1 adju- 
tant, (a second lieutenant,) 2 supernumerary captains, 1 paymaster, 1 
surgeon, from 2 to 3 assistant surgeons, 1 chief trumpeter, 1 regi- 
mental clerk, 4 veterinaries with the rank of orderly sergeant. The super- 
numerary captains are for the purpose of commanding the skeleton of the 
corresponding landwehr regiment and the depot squadron, as well as for 
other detached service. 

The junior field officer commands the corresponding landwehr regiment, 
the captains and adjutant of which are also taken from the line. The 
squadrons of the guard regiments are stronger by 5 privates than those 
of the line. 



PRUSSIAN CAVALRY. 297 

TACTICS AND INSTRUCTION. 

The riding drill is a separate work from the tactics proper; it is so very 
similar to the Austrian that it need not be explained in this report. 

The instruction on foot is embraced in the first 36 pages of the tactics, 
and includes the drill of the recruit, the movements of the squadron and 
regiment, and the formations for parade, review, &c. 

The squadron is the unit of tactics, as well as of interior service. 
When mounted, it is formed in two ranks,' 1 pace apart, the rear-rank 
covering their front-rank men, and is divided into 4 platoons, numbered 
from right to left. 

In each platoon the men call off by twos for mounting and dismounting; 
by threes for manoeuvring. 

The officers, non-commissioned officers, &c., are posted as follows : 

The captain, 30 paces in front of the centre; the 1st lieutenant com- 
mands the 3d platoon, and is 2 paces in front of its centre; the 2d lieu- 
tenant commands the 4th platoon ; the 3d lieutenant is a file-closer, in rear 
of the centre; the 4th lieutenant commands the 1st platoon; the 5th lieu- 
tenant commands the 2d platoon. 

The sketch on page 298 represents a squadron deployed. 

If there is no 5th lieutenant, the 2d platoon is commanded by the 
ensign, or a suitable sergeant. 

If there are but 2 lieutenants present, they command the flank platoons. 

The captain may change the arrangement of the officers, as given 
above, if he thinks proper. 

The sketch gives the 'positions of the non-commissioned officers and 
trumpeters. 

There must be one file-closer for each platoon ; if there is a deficiency 
in the number of sergeants, corporals are detailed to supply their places. 

To dismount, the chiefs and left guides of platoons, and Nos. 1 of the 
front rank, ride forward twice a horse's length, the chiefs of platoons then 
face towai:ds their men by making a right about; the right guides, Nos. 
2 of the front rank, and Nos. 1 of the rear rank, move forward a horse's 
length; Nos. 2 of the rear rank and th« file-closers stand fast; the 
trumpeters act as prescribed for the rear rank. 

Having dismounted, Nos. 2 of each rank and the right guides close up 
alongside of the Nos. 1 of their own rank ; the file-closers close up on the 
rear rank ; the ranks are thus 4 paces apart. 

To mount, the ranks are formed 4 paces apart, and the Nos. 1 of each 
rank, with the left guides, move forward a horse's length. 

Having mounted, the ranks are closed on the Nos. 1 of the front rank. 

The movements of the squadron are by threes, — never by fours. 



298 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
Explanation of signs. 

X — Captain. 

I -"— Commander of platoon, 

? 

I File-closer officer. 

I -- Right guide of platoon. 

f 

' — Left guide of platoon. 

i 
L — -- File-closer non-commissioned officer. 

T Orderly sergeant. 

t_ 

' : -— Trumpeter. 



* ? ? f ■ 

f ljjftJfaW \ff lV*Blato(m l Tf l^"'JlatmlI^I ^T tf'■Plllt»lm i t 



I I 



I 



t i 



i 



Squadron deployed. 



PRUSSIAN CAVALRY. 



299 



% 



1 



The annexed sketch shows the formation of a squadron gaining ground 
to the right after having wheeled to the right by threes 
in each rank. 

The squadron may be re-formed into Jine either by 
wheeling to the left by threes, or by forming to the front 
into line • in the latter case the front-rank men of the 
leading set of threes move forward two horses' lengths 
and halt, their rear-rank men take their places behind 
them, and the other sets of threes gain their places by 
obliquing to the left. 

Platoons may be formed in the same, manner. 

The annexed sketch will serve to explain the peculiarity 
in the column by threes, and the column by files ; in the 
column by threes the rear-rank men, instead of cover- 
ing their front-rank men, ride behind the intervals, as 
shown in the sketch ; in the column by files, in which 
each rear-rank man is alongside of his front-rank man, 
the same thing is observed by the successive files. 

In column by platoons, the non-commissioned file- 
closers place themselves on the flanks of the rear 
rank; the officer acting as file-closer is on the flank of 
the column opposite the guides, and opposite the middle 
of the column. 

The half column is formed from line by causing all 
the platoons to make, simultaneously, a quarter wheel 
to the right, (or left,) and then all move straight for- 
ward. 

In a charge in line, 500 paces are passed over at the m 
walk and trot, 200 at the gallop, and 100 at the charge, j 

Sometimes the 4th platoon charges in one rank, in j 
open order, and is supported by the remaining platoons ' 
in close order. g 

Again, the 1st, 2d, and 4th platoons charge belter- "'' 
skelter, as foragers, and are supported by the 3d platoon, 
which remains in close order. 



SKIRMISHERS. 

The 4th platoon is usually employed for skirmishing-duty. 

At the command of the captain the chief of this platoon conducts it to 
a point from 150 to 200 paces in front of the centre of the squadron, and 
there halts it. The four left files (or as many more as may be directed) 
return sabres, or rest lances, and at once dash out about 100 paces to the 



300 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE.^ 

front at a gallop, and there form in one rank with sufficient intervals to 
enable them to cover the whole front of the squadron ; the'rear-fank men 
are on the left of, and near to, their front-rank men. 

One man of each file must always have his piece loaded. 

They halt while firing, hut keep moving while loading, describing a 
figure QQ as they ride. 

Since the skirmishers are intended to cover the squadron, they, as well 
as the rest of the platoon, must conform to all its movements. 

When any party of cavalry is obliged to dismount to fight on foot, the 
Xos. 3 of each rank remain mounted, and hold the horses of Nos. 1 and 2. 

The formation of a regiment deployed is with its 4 squadrons in line, 
with intervals of 6 paces; the standard on the right of the 8d squadron; 
the colonel, accompanied by the adjutant and 2 trumpeters, 60 paces in 
front of the centre; the junior field officer 20 paces in rear of the centre 
of the regiment. 

A regiment may be formed in column by squadrons closed in mass, the 
distance being platoon front plus 6 paces; by squadrons with full distance; 
by platoons doubled on the central platoons ; and in line of columns of 
squadrons by platoons. 

A regiment being in line, the front is changed by squadrons : e.g., to 
change front forward 90° on the 1st squadron the 1st squadron wheels to 
the right and halts, the other squadrons each make a half wheel to the 
right, then march straight forward until they arrive opposite their respect- 
ive places in the new line, when they again half wheisl to the right into 
their places. 

To deploy a close column the leading squadron halts, the others wheel 
by platoons to the left, (or right,) march straight forward until they 
arrive opposite their places in line, when they wheel by platoon to the 
right, (or left,) and advance in line to their posts. This deployment is 
executed at a trot. 

During a charge in line the standard-bearer falls back into the rear rank. 

If the ground over which a charge is to be made is not known, an 
officer is sent .forward to examine it and report to the colonel. 

The entire force of a regiment should not charge, but some of the 
flank platoons should be held in reserve. 

Sometimes the 4th platoons of all the squadrons, or one entire squadron, 
charge as foragers, supported by the rest of the regiment in close order. 

Sometimes the 1st, ^d, and 4th platoons of all the squadrons charge, 
while the 3d platoons, under the command of the junior field officer, are 
held in reserve. 

The charge by echelons is also employed. 

A regiment being formed in column by squadrons, there are two 
methods of employing it in a charge : 



PRUSSIAN CAVALRY. 301 

1st. The column being right in front, the 4th squadron leaves the 
column and forms, the 1st and 2d platoons on the right, the 3d and 4th 
on the left flank of the column, the commandants of these platoons heing 
on the alignment of the file-closers of the 3d squadron ; the column then 
moves off at a trot, next at a gallop; as soon as it takes the gallop the 1st 
squadron charges ; when the colonel gives the command, halt, the 4th 
squadron charges as foragers. 

2d. The column being right in front, moves forward at a trot ; the 1st 
squadron then charges, and afterwards retires by the flanks of the column 
to the rear, where it re-forms ; the other squadrons then charge in suc- 
cession in the same manner. 

If skirmishers are to be deployed to cover the regiment, either the 4th 
platoons of all the squadrons, or one entire squadron^ are detailed for the 
purpose^ 

If the regiment is to dismount to fight on foot, it is effected upon the 
principles explained for a single squadron. 

In a brigade deployed, the interval between the regiments is 12 paces. 
The general of brigade is 100 paces in front of the centre, and is accom- 
panied by the brigade adjutant and two trumpeters. 

HORSE EQUIPMENTS. 

The cuirassiers use a heavy saddle, with a low pommel and cantle ; it 
is covered with leather, and presents nothing worthy of imitation. 

The rest of the cavalry have the Hungarian saddle ; it differs from the 
Austrian model principally in the manner of attaching the equipment; 
the forks are permanently bolted to the bars; there is more iron-work 
upon it, and small skirts are attached to it. 

Eight sizes of trees are made ; the average weight of the bare tree is 
seven pounds. 

The English saddle is the uniform for officers; they use a girth of 
hemp cords. 

For the men, the valise is replaced by a flat bag, opening in the middle 
of the lower side, which contains the clothes, and is laid on the tree, 
under the schabraque, the man sitting on it. 

The pouches are large and heavy ; they are attached to the saddle by 
spring hooks, and contain many of the necessaries. 

The pistol-holstor is in one of the pouches ; also a pocket for extra 
cartridges ; to one pouch the hatchet is attached. 

The cloak and forage-bag are strapped to the cantle; the kettle, in a 
leather case, is attached to the left side of the hind fork. The schabraque 
is of blue cloth, with a lining of coarse linen ; it has pockets in the lining. 

Cruppers and breast-straps are used; the surcingle is of leather, and 
fastens in the Mexican style ; the girth is also of leather, about 3^ inches 



802 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

wide, and with a large buckle ; it is iu two parts, and is attached to the 
bars by thongs of raw hide. 

The saddle-blanket is 8' by 6' 3"; it is folded in 12 thicknesses. 

The forage-bag is of white linen. * 

The forage-cord has an iron ring at one end. 

The nose-bag is of coarse linen, the bottom bound and crossed with 
broad linen tape. 

The curry-comb is 6" by 4", with four rows of teeth ; one pattern, for 
field service, has a strap attached to the back, instead of a handle, the 
hand being run under the strap. 

The mane-comb is of horn ; metallic combs have been tried and 
abandoned. 

The shoe-pouches, one on each side of the hind fork, contain, each, 1 fore 
and 1 hind shoe, as well as 16 common and 4 ice nails, in a straw cushion. 

The stirrups are of steel, and roughly made. 

A hemp surcingle is used in the stable. 

Two bits are used, both of steel ; the curb has straight branches, and 
a heavy steel chain. 

The headstall is single ; the curb is buckled to the cheek-pieces ; near 
its lower end a strap about 2" long is sewed to one side of each cheek- 
piece ; the snaffle is attached to a ring at the end of this strap by a chain 
and toggle. 

The curb-reins are 4' long. No martingale is used. 

The halter presents nothing peculiar : the rope is 6' long, and is either 
of hemp or hair ; in garrison a chain is sometimes used. By attaching a 
snaffle-bit and rein, the halter serves as a watering-bridle. 

The Russian bit is being tried : in this experiment the snaffle fastens to 
the halter-headstall by a chain and toggle, while the curb-headstall, which 
is very light, passes through loops on the halter. 

All articles of each set of equipments are branded with the number of 
the set. 

ARMS AND ACCOUTREMENTS. 

Cuirassiers, sabre of the old French cuirassier pattern ; 20 men in 
each squadron have a smooth-bore carbine, with a barrel 15" long; the 
rest of the men a pistol, with a 9" barrel. 

Dragoons, light-cavalry sabre, blade 32" long, and 1|" wide at the 
shoulder, considerably curved, guard and scabbard of steel; sergeants 
and trumpeters, 1 pistol each; 50 men in each squadron have a rifled 
carbine, the rest a smooth-bore carbine. 

Laiicers, sabre as for dragoons; lance 10^' long; firearms as for 
cuLrassiers. 

Hussars, armed as described for dragoons. 

The cuirassiers have metallic helmet, breast and back pieces. 



PRUSSIAN CAVALRY. 303 

The sabre-belt is an ordinary waist-belt with slings; it fastens by 
means of an (^/^ hook. 

The cartridge-box is attached to a shoulder-belt; it contains 18 rounds; 
it is filled by a wooden block, in which a hole is bored for every car- 
tridge. 

The carbine, or pistol, rammer is attached to the cartridge-bos belt by 
a thin strap, the rammer being slipped through two loops on the cartridge- 
box. 

The carbine-sling is not peculiar. 

On the march the carbine is carried in a boot, the small of the stock 
being strapped to the pommel. 

UNIFORM. 

The dragoons wear a helmet of black leather, surmounted by a brass 
spear-head. 

The lancers have the ordinary lancers' cap, the czapka. 

The hussars, a cylindrical shako of fui', without visor. 

The forage-cap has no visor. 

The clothing is of excellent material, and is well made ; it is made up 
in the regiments. 

A short frock-coat is worn by all the cavalry. 

Coat and pants are lined throughout. 

The pants are re-enforced with black leather, and are split about 6" 
from the bottom, along the outer seam, the slit fastening with hooks and 
eyes ; straps of leather are sewed to the pants. 

Boots are worn under the pants ; steel spurs are permanently attached 
to the boots. 

The overcoat has a large rolling collar, and no cape ; it is of a dark- 
gray color, nearly black. 

The stock is of bombazine, lined with linen ; it has a flap in front, and 
fastens by means of a buckle. 

The buttons are plain. 

Shirts, socks, and cloth mittens are issued. 

HORSES. 

There is a central commission at Berlin charged with the regulation of 
the purchase of horses. 

For this purpose, the monarchy is divided into three districts : 1st, the 
country east of the Vistula ; 2d, that from the Vistula to the Elbe ; 3d, 
the Rhenish provinces. 

There is a sub-commission for each of these districts, and several re- 
mount depots. 

The horses are purchased between the ages of 3 and 7, the preference 



304 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

being given to young horses, which remain at the remount depots until 
they are 41 years old. 

The horse is supposed to give 9 years' service, on the average; there- 
fore, each regiment is annually supplied with remount horses to the num- 
ber of one-ninth of its total strength. 

As an instance of the price of horses, it may be mentioned that in 
1854, in the province of Pomerania, 733 horses were ojffered to the sub- 
commission, 311 of which were purchased; the average price paid was 
$85, the highest price S137. 

Prussia is not now obliged to import horses for the army. 

The horses are branded with the initials of the name and the number 
of the regiment to which they belong, also with the sign of the province 
where purchased. 

The horses are generally good, but by no means extraordinary. 

The minimum height of horses for the garde du corps is 16 hands. 

cuirassiers is 15 hands 2 inches. 

light guard and lancers is. ..15 hands i inch. 

dragoons and hussars is 14 hands 3j% inches- 

The minimum height of artillery draught-horses is 16 hands. 

saddle-horses is 14 hands 3jo inches. 

From 2 to 4 spare horses are allowed each squadron. 

Every lieutenant of cavalry receives a public horse once in 5 years ; if 
he rides the same horse for that time, it becomes his private property at 
the expiration of the period, unless he is promoted to a captaincy in the 
interim. 

If he does not avail himself of this privilege for 5 years, he receives 
a compensation of from $100 to $110 at the expiration of that time. 

If he loses his public horse in time of war, he receives a new one, and 
is credited for the time he rode the first. 

It is the duty of the colonels to see that the officers are properly 
mounted. 

In time of war, or in case of pressing necessity, the laws allow the 
government to seize the horses of citizens for the use of the army; the 
owners are paid a price determined by a board of officers. 

RATIONS OF THE MEN. 

In garrison, bread only is issued in kind, li pounds to the ration; it 
must have been baked at least 24 hours before i^sue, and is issued every 
4 days. The rest of the food is purchased, by means of a small daily 
allowance in money, by a commission consisting of the colonel, 1 captain, 
1 lieutenant, and 4 sergeants. 

The principal food is soup, with a small slice of meat. 

No coffee is issued ; brandy or wine in lieu of it. 



PRUSSIAN CAVALRY. 



305 



The largest field ration consists of: 

i l^ouud of meat, or J pound of salt pork ; 2 pounds of bread, or 1 
pound of biscuit; i pound of rice, or i pound of peeled barley, or i 
pound beans or peas, or J pound of meal, or IJ pounds of potatoes; i 
pint of brandy, and salt. 

The bread is generally carried in the forage-sack; the brandy in a 
flask. 

The annexed sketch gives 
the form and dimensions of 
the kettle carried by each 
man in the field; it is in ia 
strong leather case, strapped 
to the left side of the hind 
fork ; the kettle is, of stout 
tin. 

A is the cover. 

B, the kettle. 

C, plan of the bottom. 
J), pan, fitting in B. 
E and F, section and plan 

of cover, with rings to serve 
as handles, and small tin 
springs to keep it in place ; 
it is carried in the top, (A.) 

G, handle of top (A) 
when used as a stew-pan, 
slipping into the receptacle 
II ; it is 4" long, and is 
carried in D, slipping into I. 

In garrison, mess-rooms arc sometimes provided ; eaen man has a bowl 
and wooden spoon ; the bread is kept in the quarters, each man having a 
cupboard with a lock and key. 

QUARTERS. 

As the quarters have been described in treating of the infantry, it is 
only necessary to say here that they are usually in separate buildings from 
the stables. 

The horse equipments arc kept in the quarters. 





FORAGE. 

The ration is of two kinds, the heavy and the light; each of these 
varies according to circumstances as follows : 



306 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

Heavy ration, in garrison 9 quarts of oats, 5 pounds of hay, 8 pounds of straw. 

on march, in peace lOJ " 3 " 4 " 

in the field, in war 11 J " 3 " 4 " 

Light ration, in garrison 7i "6 " 8 " 

on march, in peace 9 " 3 " 4 " 

in the field, in war 10 "3 " 4 " 

With the consent of the minister of war, the ration as given above 
may be changed, as follows : the oats may be replaced by rye, barley, bis- 
cuit, hay, or straw, at the following rates : for each quart of oats 0.56 
quart rye, or 0.8 quart barley, or f pound biscuit, or 21 pounds hay, or 
5 J pounds straw; hay may be replaced by straw at the rate of 2 pounds 
of straw for 1 pound of hay. 

The straw, as given above in the garrison ration, is one-half fed, the 
rest used for litter. 

The heavy ration is issued to the cavalry of the guard, the horses of 
the riding-school, the horse artillery of the guard, the draught-horses of 
all the artillery, and the cuirassier regiments. 

The light ration is issued to all other horses, except that the lancers 
receive f quart of oats more than the quantity specified above for the 
light ration. 

From the day of their purchase until joining their regiments, the re- 
mount horses receive from 1h to 9 quarts of oats, 7 pounds of hay, and 
4 pounds of straw per diem. 

STABLES. 

The new and best stables are of brick, of one story, with a loft above. 
They have a central passage-way, with a row of stalls on each side, and 
usually accommodate the horses of an entire regiment. 

In some cases, the stables are built on three sides of a rectangle; each 
of the short sides for 1 squadron ; the long side for 2 squadrons, and 
having a riding-house in the middle; the barracks, detached, form the 
fourth side. In other cases, the long side is for 1 squadron and the 
riding-house, while there is a perpendicular wing for each of the other 
squadrons. 

The stalls are 5' 2" wide, 9' 6" long to the heel-post, 1' thence to the 
drain; the central passage-way is 12' 4" wide; the ceiling 15' high. 
The interior of the stables is plastered, and the communication with the 
loft is by means of trap-doors in convenient places for throwing down the 
hay. 

The passage-way is paved with cubical blocks of stone; the stalls with 
bricks set on the long edge. 

The stalls are separated by swinging bars suspended by a hook at the 
head of the stall and by a stem and socket in rear, as shown in the 
sketch on page 305, in which A is the heel-post, B the swinging bar. 



PRUSSIAN CAVALRY. 



307 



B 



For every third stall there is a window 3' square, the sill being 8' 6" 
above the floor; above the other stalls are ventilators, 10" square, that 
can be opened and closed by means 
of iron rods. The mangers are of (^'''Hvv/^ 
cast iron, 2' long, 11" wide, 8" deep ; 
the top 4' above the floor. They 
are supported by two .iron stan- 
chions under the middle; to the 
one nearest the horse he is at- 
tached by a sliding ring. 

Each horse has a separate iron 
rack, the bottom of which is 2' 
above the manger ; it is 2' 6" long 

and 18" deep. The hay is put in from below, after beinsr sorted and 
cleaned from dust. 

There are pumps and vats in the stables. 

From 1 to 4 days' forage is kept in the loft, there being forage- 
magazines close at hand. 

A board is nailed across from one heel-post to another, about 7' above 
the floor; on this is painted in large figures the number of the stall, and 
on a black-board as follows : 



h: 



A 



A 





Private John Smith. — Equipment Ko. 162. 






Name of horse. 


Year of remount. 


Sex. 


Height. 


Age. 


Ziethen 


1853 


Male 


4/ 11// 


6 







The age is that at the time of his joining the regiment, or at the year 
of remount. 

A black-board is hung up in the stable of each squadron, on which are 
inscribed in chalk, daily, the names of the stable-guard, the number of 
government horses for duty, the number of officers' horses for duty, the 
number and names of the sick horses. 

At convenient places there are banquette beds for the stable-guard. 

Lanterns are swung from the ceiling along the middle of the passage- 
way. 

The horse-hospital and the shoeing-shop are in separate buildings, the 
former being enclosed by a wall. 

In the stable-yard racks are provided for airing the litter. 

STABLE-DUTY. 
The stable-guard consists of 1 corporal and 8 men per squadron ; they 
are on duty for 24 hours, sleep in the stable, feed the grain, and are re- 



808 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

sponsible for the police and order of the stables between stable-calls. Two 
of the number must be on duty and awake day and night. 

The stable-guard and the stable-duty generally are under the direction 
of the squadron officer of the day, the orderly sergeant and the squadron 
sergeant of the day. 

The ration of oats is divided into five equal portions. One of these 
is given the first thing in the morning; then the horse is cleaned and 
watered ; after this, another portion is given ; about noon the horse 
receives another portion, and is again watered ; soon after this he is 
again rubbed down, and after that receives another portion; a little before 
dark he is again watered, and receives the last portion. 

The straw is generally chopped and fed with the oats, the greater part 
being given with the last portion. 

The hay is fed one-half in the morning, the rest after the last evening 
feed. 

The grain is fed by the stable-guard as follows : a box mounted on 
wlieels contains the feed, and is wheeled along by one man ; two others, 
having dish-shaped baskets, each receive from the corporal the portion 
for 1 horse, and pour it in the mangers on each side of the passage-way 
as they proceed. The orderly sergeant and the sergeant of the day 
superintend. 

The . men clean out the mangers of their own horses before the 
feeding. 

Each man provides his own horse with hay, which is shaken and freed 
from dust, sticks, weeds, &c., before being placed in the racks. 

At stable-call, each man polices the stall of his own horse. Birch 
brooms, wooden shovels bound with iron, and light forks are used in 
policing the stables. 

For every 10 horses there are allowed 1 bucket, 1 sieve, 1 shovel, 1 
fork, and from 1 to 2 brooms. 

The horses are sometimes blanketed in the stables. 

FIELD SERVICE. 

In the field, the following is the allowance of transportation for a 
regiment of cavalry : 

1 four-horse wagon, containing regimental chest 300 pounds weight. 

Paymaster's and other regimental books 40 

Adjutant's desk 40 

Officers' mess-chest 100 

" portmanteaus (captains 55, lieutenants 45 lbs,, each) 1,340 

Total weight 1,820 



PRUSSIAN CAVALTyY. 309 

1 two-horse wagon, containing armorer's tool? 220 pounds weight. 

Saddler's tools 110 " " 

Baggage of the surgeons , 100 " " 

Medicines, &c 252 " " 

Total weight 682 " " 



Each squadron has a two-horse cart, loaded as follows : . 

OflBcers' mess-chest 30 pounds weight. 

Farriers' tools 60 " " 

Spare equipment 173 " " 

Blankets for sick men 27 " " 

Baggage, (fee, of orderly sergeant 20 " " 

Baggage, (fee, of the medical ^e»-son/!ei 60 " " 

Money, when on detachment 50 " . " 

Totalweig-ht 420 " " 



So long a time has elapsed since the Prussian cavalry have seen any 
serious field service on a large scale, that they have but little more than 
theory and remote traditions in this regard ; it is probable that we have 
but little to learn from them on this point. 

Tents are not used in the Prussian army ; the troops being placed in 
cantonments, huts, or bivouacs. 

The huts are of wood or straw, and either square or round : the square 
huts are 15' square in the interior, and are for 14 men with their equip- 
ment ; the round huts are 20' in diameter, and contain 18 men with their 
equipment. 

The round huts are 36, the square 28, paces apart, from centre to 
centre. 

The huts of each squadron are in two rows, facing each other and 
perpendicular to the front of the camp ; the width of the street varying 
with the strength of the squadron. 

The picket-ropes are stretched 3 paces in front of the lines of huts, 
and parallel to them ; they are attached to picket-pins, driven firmly into 
the ground, 2 paces apart; 4^ paces in rear of the picket-rope another 
rope is stretched, parallel to it, to enclose the horses. The baggage is in 
rear of the colonel's hut; the kitchens 25 paces in rear of the baggage. 

The kitchens are ditches 15 paces long, and 2' deep, one for each 
squadron. 

The latrines are 125 paces in rear of the kitchens ; those for the men 
are ditches 30' long and 3' deep, which are renewed eveiy 2 or 3 days in 
summer. 

A regiment of cavalry may bivouac either in line or with the rows of 
horses perpendicular to the front, or in column by squadrons with half 
distance. 



310 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



1, BIVOUAC IN LINE. 

Each squadron is allowed a space 75 paces long, by 30 paces deep, 
with intervals of 4 paces between the squadrons. 

The kitchens are 10 paces behind the bivouac of the men ; the 
squadron officers 5 paces in rear of the kitchens; the staff 10 paces in 
rear of the squadron officers. 

The parade-ground is in front of the bivouac, and must be at least 30 
paces deep. 

A bivouac of this kind occupies a front of 312 paces, and a depth of 
80 paces, counting from the bivouac of the front rank to the baggage- 
wagons, inclusive. 

2. BIVOUAC WITH PICKET-ROPES PERPENDICULAR TO THE FRONT. 

Each squadron is allowed a front of 50 paces, and a depth of 75, with 
intervals of 10 paces between the squadrons. The arrangement of the 
kitchens, &c., is similar to that in the preceding case. 

The parade-ground is in front of the camp, and is 50 paces deep. 

A bivouac of this kind occupies a front of 230 paces and. a depth of 
125, between the same points as in the last case. 

3. BIVOUAC IN COLUMN BY SQUADRONS. 

Each squadron is allowed a front of 75 paces, and a depth of 20, with 
distances of 10 paces between the squadrons. 

The kitchens are 10 paces from one flank of the column, the squadron 
officers 5 paces beyond the kitchens ; the colonel and staff 20 paces behind 
the last squadron. The parade-ground is on the opposite flank from the 
kitchens ; a free space 50 paces deep is left in front of the bivouac and 
parade-ground. 

This bivouac occupies a front of 165 paces, including the parade- 
ground, and a depth of 145 paces between the same points as in the last 
case. 

In bivouac the sabres are stuck in the ground 3 paces in front of the 
picket-ropes ; the shako and cartridge-box hung on it. 

The horse equipments are placed 3 paces in rear of the horses. 

In time of peace, cavalry usually march 14 miles each day, resting 
every fourth day. In good weather, and over good roads, they may 
march 28 miles or more ; but such long marches are to be avoided, as 
injurious to the horses and equipment. 

On good roads, and in good weather, the march is usually at the rate 
of 3 miles per hour ; in a rough, broken country, about one-third more 
time must be allowed. 



PRUSSIAN CAVALRY. 311 

To place a squadron on a railway-train requires about 2 hours ; about 
1 hour is needed to take them off. 

2 locomotives and about 32 wagons are needed to transport a squadron. 

SCHOOL OF EQUITATION, AT SCHWEDT. 

Lieutenants and non-commissioned officers of cavalry and artillery ai'e 
sent to this school for instruction in equitation. 

The course lasts two years ; there is but one class of officers ; that is, 
they all enter and leave the school at the same time, an entirely new set 
entering every second year; one-half of the non-commissioned officers 
leave every year. 

One officer is sent from every brigade of cavalry, and one from every two 
regiments of artillery. Two non-commissioned officers are sent from every 
regiment of cavalry and of artillery. 

Each officer brings 2 private horses with him, the school furnishing 
him with a third ; the non-commissioned officers come without horses, 
and take back to their regiments the horse each one rode during the 
last year. 

The school consists of 1 field officer as director, 3 captains, or lieu- 
tenants, as instructors, 2 riding-masters, 24 lieutenants and 94 non-com- 
missioned officers as pupils, 1 paymaster, 1 orderly sergeant, 2 veterina- 
ries, 1 quartermaster, 1 horse-breaker, 57 privates as grooms, 27 privates 
as officers' servants. 

The stables and riding-halls are ample, and well arranged. 

The riding in the open air is performed on a drill-ground some dis- 
tance from the town ; here they leap ditches, hurdles, &c., fire with the 
carbine and pistol, run at the heads, &c. 

The annexed sketch explains the manner of attaching the 
head to the post; it avoids the necessity of keeping a man 
at the post to replace the head. The head is shaped as in 
the figure, and is partly covered with leather; at A it is 
secured by a leather thong, so that when struck it moves 
around that point as a hinge, and is stopped by the trian- 
gular piece of wood, B; it thus resumes its first position. 
They cut at balls on the ground on the right, never on the 
left. 

The pupils are taught to vault on and off the horse at a gallop. Their 
time is fully occupied by constant exercises during the day. 

The usual continental system of employing kickers is followed here ; 

for this purpose two or three horses are taught to kick and plunge in 

every possible way, when tied up close to two posts; the recruits are 

mounted on these, without stirrups, and hold on, if they can, by means 

of a couple of straps attached to the pommel. 

19 




812 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

The system pursued in breaking young horses is one of extreme care 
and gentleness; violent measures are never resorted to; considerable at- 
tention is paid to rendering the muscles of the head and neck pliable, in 
order to gain full control over the horse; this, however, must not be un- 
derstood as indicating approbation of the Baucher system, which here, as 
well as elsewhere, has been tried and found to be unfit for cavalry 
purposes. 

THE VETERINARY SCHOOL AT BERLIN. 

At this institution about 80 pupils are instructed as farriers and vete- 
rinaries for the army, in addition to a number of civilian pupils. 

It is very similar to the veterinary school at Vienna, described under 
the head of the Austrian cavalry; but not quite so extensive, and perhaps 
• not so perfect. 

It has lecture and dissecting rooms, operating-halls, museums of com- 
parative anatomy, &c. 

The stables accommodate about 80 horses, and are arranged for from 4 
to*6 horses in each division. 

The interior arrangement of the stables presents nothing peculiar, 
except that there is but one row of stalls in each. There are boxes, in 
separate stables, for glandered horses. The Russian steam-bath is used 
in the establishment, but it is stated that the result is not generally bene- 
ficial ; it has been applied in cases of rheumatism, colic, &c. 

The horseshoeing department is under a special instructor. The shoes 
and tools present nothing new or worthy of imitation, both being heavy 
and awkward. 

The shoes have no groove, but the nail-holes are countersunk ; there 
are four nails on each side ; four sizes of shoes are used in the cavalry. 

The method of shoeing is similar to that pursued in Austria, — one man 
holding the horse, another his leg, a third putting on the shoe. 

A vice is made use of in teaching the pupils to set and nail on a shoe; 
the hoof and pastern of a horse recently deceased are placed in this vice, 
which is attached to a bench, and so arranged as to admit of being thrown 
into various positions. 

Cows, pigs, dogs, and cats, are treated in this institution. The horses 
of. civilians are cured and shod upon moderate terms, in order to secure 
the necessary amount of practice for the pupils. 

The Prussian military literature is very rich, and is well worthy of 
study. 

Among the works relating to cavalry, which may be consulted with 
advantage, are — 

Kalkstein on the Prussian Army; Die Preussische Armee, nach ihren 
reglementarischen Formen und Einrichtungen, &c., von R. v. Kalkstein ; 



PRUSSIAN CAVALRY. 313 

Mirus' Aide-memoire; Hiilfsbuch beim theoretischen Unterriclit des 
Cavalleristen, Von Mirus — this gives the interior service in great detail. 

Witzleben on Army Affairs ; Heerwesen und Infauteriedienst der Ko- 
niglich Preussischen Armee, von A. von Witzleben ; Buschbeck's Field 
Pocket-Book; Preussisches Feld-Taschenbuch fiir Offiziere aller Waffen, 
von F. Buschbeck ; the Hand-Book of Field Service for Cavalry Officers, 
Handbuch des Felddienstes fiir Cavallerie-Offiziere, von einem Cavallerie- 
Offizier. 

Schimmel's Partisan Warfare ; Compendium des kleinen Krieges, fur 
lufanterie- und Cavallerie-Offiziere, von Friederich Schimmel. 

Seidler on Breaking Horses ; Seidler, Bearbeitung des Campagne-Pfer- 
des, and Seidler, Dressur difficiler Pferde. 

Prof. Hertwig's Works on the Veterinary Science ; Praktisches 
Handbuch der Chirurgie fur Thierarzte; Taschenbuch der gesammten 
Pferdekunde; Praktische Arzneimittellehre fiir Thierarzte, von Dr. 
C. H. Hertwig. 

All these works are to be found in the library of the War Department. 



i^^ 






314 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 



ORGANIZATION. 

In the Austrian army there are 16 regiments of heavy cavah*y — i.e. 
8 of cuirassiers and 8 of dragoons; and 24 of light cavalry — i.e. 12 of 
hussars and 12 of lancers. 

Each regiment of the former consists of 6 active squadrons, the men 
and horses being chiefly from the German provinces. 

Each regiment of light cavalry has 8 active squadrons ; the men and 
horses of the hussars being Hungarian and Transylvanian ; those of the 
lancers are, for the most part, from Poland. 

Each regiment has a colonel, one field officer for every two squadrons, 
an adjutant, paymaster, quartermaster, and judge advocate. 

The squadron is the unit for the administration and interior service ; 
the division of 2 squadrons commanded by a field officer is the tactical 
unit. Each division has a standard. 

A squadron of heavy cavalry consists of: 
1 captain commanding, called 1st captain. 

1 2d captain. 

2 lieutenants. 

2 sub-lieutenants. 
2 sergeants. 
12 corporals. 
1 trumpeter. 
1 saddler. 
1 veterinary. 
162 men and 150 government horses. 
A squadron of light cavalry consists of: 
1 captain commanding. 

1 2d captain. 

2 lieutenants. 

2 sub-lieutenants. 
2 sergeants. 
12 corporals. 
2 trumpeters. 
1 saddler. 
1 veterinary. 
200 men and 201 government horses. 



AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 315 

In addition to the numbers given above, 2 officers' servants are allowed 
to each squadron. 

The general rule is, that about 10 per cent, of the men are dismounted; 
it is stated by some of tl\eir cavalry officers that 20 per cent, would, in 
time of war, be a better proportion. 

The dismounted men remain at the depot, or ride in the wagons ; 
they never use the horses of the other men, and do all the dismounted 
duty, take care of the led horses, those of the sergeants, &c. 

Each regiment has a depot, which, during peace, consists of 30 men ; 
in time of war, it has the same strength as the other squadrons, and 
supplies men to fill the vacancies which occur. The junior 1st cap- 
tain of the regiment usually commands the depot, but after 2 years' 
service with it he may demand to be replaced by a senior 1st captain. 

In time of peace, the depot is usually with the head-quarters of the 
regiment ; during war, it is placed at some spot convenient to the line 
of operations of the regiment. In war, the remount horses are kept 
■with the depot until they can join the service squadrons. During the 
Hungarian war, there was one instance when there were 1,000 horses 
with the depot of a regiment of lancers which formed part of the gar- 
rison of the besieged place of Temesvar. 

TACTICS AND INSTRUCTION. 

In order to give an idea of the general tone of the tactics, a few ex- 
tracts will be given, relating chiefly to the seat and the early instruction 
of the recruits. 

For the cavalry, equitation is of the greatest importance. 

It consists not only in the ability to sit the horse, but also in knowing 
how to conduct and use him under all circumstances. 

The object of the cavalry instruction is to accomplish this purpose in 
the shortest time, and in the simplest manner, suited to the mental and 
physical qualities of the soldiers. 

Therefore, no intricate system of equitation will answer the purpose; 
although the instruction of the non-commissioned officers may be carried 
further than that of the privates. 

The- instruction in the riding-school is intended to give the rider suffi- 
cient skill to enable him, by means of the various aids, to control the 
horse, and cause him to execute all possible movements, and at the same. 
time to give such a position to the upper part of the body and the arms 
as will cause the rider the least fatigue, and enable him to use his 
weapons with the greatest effect. 

It is an absolute rule that the recruit must never be passed from one 
lesson to another until he fully "comprehends, and can execute well, all 
that precedes. 



316 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

Good judgment, tranquillity, patience, and mild treatment, are the 
most important qualities in an instructor. 

The strength of neither horse nor man should be over-taxed. 

An experienced and skilful instructor will always go to work with 
circumspection, and never allow himself to be induced by passion to 
demand more of man or horse than they are in condition to perform 
or the end in view requires. 

The instruction must progress only according to proficiency; there- 
fore, any practice in the various turns, or in passaging, while the requi- 
site preliminary instruction is wanting, is not only useless, but injurious. 

Besides teaching the recruit the ordinary care of his horse, he must 
also be made familiar with the different parts of his equipment, and be 
taught how to saddle, pack, and bridle his horse. 

In addition, before being taught to ride, he must receive some instruc- 
tion in the position of the soldier, the facings and marching on foot 
without weapons, since he acquires thereby a more unconstrained and 
regular position, which facilitates the instruction in riding. 

Finally, there are some exercises on foot which have special reference 
to the position of the rider. Among these are : To throw back and lower 
the shoulder-blades by crossing the arms behind the back ; turning the 
wrists with the fingers closed ; to stand on an even floor, with the feet 
parallel and the thighs apart, then to lower and raise the upper part of 
the body by bending the knees; by this means the necessary flexibility 
of the knees and the vertical position of the haunches are obtained. 

The recruit being on foot, the reins are placed in his hands, and he is 
taught how to hold them ; the use of the legs is explained to him at the 
■same time. 

The recruits will also be greatly benefited by being frequently shown 
a well-broken horse, fully packed, and mounted by a well-drilled soldier. 
The time bestowed upon these preliminaries will not be thrown away, but 
will be found to be amply repaid by the increased facility with which the 
recruit will learn his duty, and the smaller amount of explanation required 
from the instructor. 

Quiet and well- broken horses must always be given to recruits. 

Their instruction must never commence without stirrups, but they will 
ride without stirrups only after they have acquired a firm, sure seat; it is 
entirely inadmissible for the recruits to ride without stirrups in the lessons 
with the longe. 

All movements will be first taught at a walk ; afterwards at the trot and 
gallop. 

The walk must be lively, free, and decided. 

The trot must be decided, easy, united, uniform, long, and sure. 

The gallop should be calm, united, long, and low. 



AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 317 

A good instructor can drill 3 or 4 recruits ; but the same instructor 
should always drill the same men. 

The intelligence of the instructor, the progress of the recruits, and the 
pressure of circumstances, must determine how long each lesson is to be 
dwelt upon, and when to pass from one lesson to another. 

OF THE SEAT. 

On horseback, the body has three points of support, — the extremities 
of the haunch-bones and the end of the spine; therefore, the haunches 
form the foundation of the seat, and on their direction depends the posi- 
tion of the rider. 

When the recruit mounts for the first time, his haunches, thighs, the 
lower part of the legs, and the upper part of the body, must be placed in' 
position for him. 

The haunches must be square on the saddle, and perpendicular to it, so 
that both haunch-bones may rise alike, and the end of the spine be exactly 
over the middle of the saddle. If the haunches are leaned too far back, 
the waist is carried with them, the upper part of the body bent, and the 
thighs raised ; if the haunches are leaned forward, the upper part of the 
body loses its steady position, requires an effort to preserve its equilibrium, 
and the thighs are thrown too far back. 

The thighs must be so much turned out, and thrown forward with the 
knees, that they may lie flat on the saddle. The extent to which this 
may be carried is determined by the prescribed perpendicular position of 
the haunches ; if the thighs are thrown too far forward, the haunches will 
lean back ; and if the thighs are too far back, the body is raised from the 
saddle. The lower part of the legs, from the knee down, must hang along 
the sides of the horse quite naturally, and without constraint : they should* 
not be opened out, nor strongly raised or pressed together. The whole 
surface of the foot must rest on the bottom of the stirrup. The heel must 
be dropped so as to stretch the muscles of the thigh, but not so much as 
to stretch the calf of the leg or the ankle-joint; for upon the mobility of 
the ankle depends, not only keeping the stirrup, but also the falling back 
of the thigh into its proper place after each step of the horse. Although 
the whole inner surface of the thigh must be flat on the saddle, it must 
not be stiff and constrained. 

When the lower part of the leg hangs naturally, the toe is a little 
turned out. 

The foot is thrust into the stirrup as far as the ball of the great toe, 
and must rest lightly on the bottom of the stirrup. The vertical plane 
through the centre of gravity of the body must pass through the heels, by 
which means the rider has more power, and the knees produce more effect. 

In riding without stirrups, the thighs must be well extended and the 



318 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

knees lowered, so that the rider may not cling to the horse with the 
calves, and may have the buttocks firmly on the saddle. The spine should 
be vertical above the hips. The back of the rider must be elastic, but 
firm; because this is necessary in using his weapons, and also to break 
the violence of the blow caused by the motion of the horse, particularly 
at a trot, and the rider is thus prevented from being tossed up from the 
saddle, shaken, or strained. A firm back is also necessary to resist the 
forward motion of the horse; and it is to be borne in mind that the 
peculiar construction of the joints of the spine admits of a forward motion 
to a much greater extent than in the opposite direction. Since the rider's 
hands are in absolute connection with the mouth of the horse, he is pulled 
forward by a horse heavy on the hand, or bearing on the bit, and finds 
himself unable to control such an animal unless his back is firm. 

In long marches, the fully-armed soldier is, in consequence of fatigue, 
much inclined to throw the body forward. 

These are good reasons for giving great attention to a good, upright, 
firm, and elastic carriage of the spine. 

The shoulders must be sunk, and both blades thrown back, not to such 
an extent as to stretch the muscles of the breast, but merely to expand it 
freely ; if the shoulders are raised, the breast is contracted, which is in- 
jurious to the health. 

If one shoulder is lower than the other, the corresponding hip is drawn 
inward, and vice versa. The head must be carried easily on the shoulders, 
and the chin slightly raised : if the head is thrown too far back, the posi- 
tion of the spine is injured; if it is bent too far forward, the shoulders 
are rounded, and the rider's field of view contracted. 

In the beginning the reins are placed in both hands, each rein passing 
through the whole hand. 

The upper part of the arm, without pressing against the body, hangs 
near it, naturally, straight, and freely ; if the elbow is pressed against the 
body, the shoulder is raised, and the position of the hand becomes con- 
strained and unnatural ; while, if the elbow is thrown out too far from 
the body, the hand becomes unsteady. 

The forearm is lightly closed on the body, the hands so rounded at 
the wrists as to bring the thumbs opposite each other, and the little 
fingers somewhat towards the body ; the hands are held, with the fists 
closed, 4 inches apart, and just above the pommel. The outer hand is 
a hand's breadth higher than the inner. 

To acquire a light, firm hand, the slight pressure of the forearm 
against the body is necessary ; for if the recruit endeavors to gain it by 
a strong pressure of the forearm against the body, he will acquire a 
stifi", heavy hand. 

In sitting the horse the body is divided into two movable parts, and one 



A U S T R I A N C A V A L R Y. 319 

immovable : the movable parts are from the hips upwards, and from the 
knees downwards; the immovable part is the thigh, which, to a certain 
extent, is indivisible from the saddle, and should be as though glued to it. 

The legs should hang with the full weight, so that the rider will 
neither stand on the stirrups, nor close the knees unnaturally, because 
this closing of the crotch throws up the knees, which fault increases with 
every motion of the horse, especially at a trot or gallop. 

The chief departures from a regular seat are : the i^jplit, the forked, and 
the sfool seats. 

In the first, the legs and knees are thrown too far back; in the second, 
they are too nearly vertical ; in the third, the hips are too far back, and 
the knees too far forward. 

In the first lessons the recruit must be allowed to take the position 
which his build renders most convenient, and the instructor must not be 
rigid in his corrections, but allow the men to acquire confidence. 

The shape of the saddle, and the form and gait of the horse, have a de- 
cided influence upon, the seat ; the Hungarian saddle is better than any 
other for giving an upright and handsome seat, but great care must be 
taken that the man does not acquire a split or forked seat. 

A proper adaptation of man and horse, the discovery, judicious criti- 
cism upon, and removal of the causes which prevent the recruit from 
assuming a good seat, do more to hasten the instruction than loud halloo- 
ing and chasing about for hours. 

The walk is the easiest gait for the ridei', and the natural gait of the 
horse ; it should be at the rate of about 120 steps per minute. 

The trot is the most lasting pace of the horse, but the hardest for the 
rider ; as it does much towards giving a good seat, the men should be 
much exercised at it; the common trot is at the rate of about 250, the 
trot out 300 steps per minute. 

The fall gallop is at the rate of 500 steps per minute ; the hand gallop 
somewhat slower. 

The charge is at the rate of about 600 steps per minute. 

SWIMMING. 

Since it is often necessary for light troops to swim their horses, they 
should be taught beforehand to throw the carbine over the shoulder, to 
allow the curb-reins to hang loosely, and to guide the horse by the snaffle, 
not straight across the stream, but a little against the current. 

The rider must grasp the mane, and never look at the water, but at the 
bank, lest he become giddy. 

In the event of being swept from the saddle, he can still keep above 
water by keeping hold of the mane; if he loses this advantage, he must 
endeavor to seize the horse's tail, and allow the animal to take him ashore. 



320 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 
The Division. 



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AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 321 

The figure on page 320 shows the formation of a division of 2 squadrons 
in line, with the posts of all the officers and non-commissioned officers. 

It will bo observed that there is no interval between the squadrons, 
and that the ofiicers, with the exception of the file-closers, are in the 
front rank. In the diiferent formations in column they retain their places 
in the ranks. The field ofiicer commanding the division, accompanied by 
a trumpeter, is usually at a suitable distance in front of the centre, but 
may move wherever he deems best. 

The interval between divisions is 18 paces. 

The files .are told off by fours, the column by fours being much em- 
ployed ; they also form column by twos, half platoons, platoons, half 
squadrons, half divisions, and divisions. 

The front of a column of twos, &c., is increased in a manner similar to 
that pursued in the Russian tactics. 

The column by half squadrons, and the column doubled on the centre 
half squadron, are the usu^l columns of manoeuvre. 

Columns are deployed by obliquing at the gallop ; in the oblique each 
man brings his horse's head behind his neighbor's knee. 

The order of battle of a regiment of heavy cavalry is a deployed line ; 
the same formation is used when they are exposed to a heavy fire of 
artillery. 

If a regiment of light cavalry forms part of a large body of troops, all 
four of its divisions are deployed in the order of battle, or when exposed 
to a heavy artillery fire; if the regiment is by itself, only three of its 
divisions compose the line of battle, the 4th being held in reserve, in 
column, 500 paces in rear of the centre. 

A regiment of any kind, if not about to charge at once, or not under 
the fire of artillery, is formed in line of columns. 

It being supposed that heavy cavalry is never out of reach of the 
support of other troops, the order of battle of a brigade of such cavalry 
is, with all its divisions deployed in one line. 

The order of battle of a brigade of light cavalry is, one regiment with 
all its divisions deployed in line, the other formed in line of columns, 
with closed intervals, 500 paces behind the centre of the front line. 

Independently of the reserves above mentioned, every body of cavalry 
which charges detaches, at the moment of taking the trot, a portion of 
its own force to secure its flanks and rear. 

When a single division charges, the flank platoons fall out, and form, in 
columns by platoons, about 300 paces in rear of the centre; the captains 
on the flanks close in on the charging platoons ; their whole duty is to 
watch and protect the flanks of the charging body. 

When a regiment charges, the flank squadrons act in the same manner, 
but each squadron remains behind the flank to which it belongs. 



322 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

In the charge of a brigade of heavy cavalry, the flank divisions fall 
out, and form in column by half squadrons behind the flanks of the 
line. 

In the manoeuvres of large bodies of cavalry, the Austrians form them 
in one line, throwing in advance the artillery, and a few squadrons, 
intended to make false attacks, and to clear the way for the main body : 
their reason for this is, that if the 1st line is broken it is very apt to 
carry the 2d with it. 

DOUBLE COLUMNS. 

A regiment of 4 divisions forms double column at full distance on the 
left half squadron of the 2d division, and the right half squadron of the 
3d division, without closing the interval between these divisions; thus 
the 1st and 2d divisions are each in column left in front, the 3d and 4th 
right in front. 

A brigade forms double column, at half squadron distance, on the left 
half squadron of the 1st regiment, and the right half squadron of the 
2d ; the 1st regiment being thus formed in column left in front, the 2d 
right in front ; the interval between the regiments is not closed. 

ARMS AND ACCOUTREMENTS. 

Hussars. — Sabre, j^istol, and carbine. 

Lancers. — Lance, sabre, and two pistols; 16 men in each squadron 
have a carbine in the place of one of the pistols. 

Cuirassiers. — Sabre and two pistols; 16 men in each squadron carry a 
carbine instead of one of the pistols ; a metallic helmet and breast-plate, 
no back-piece. 

Dragoons. — Sabre, pistol, and carbine; metallic helmet. 

The light- cavalry sabre has a blade about 32 inches long, and not much 
curved ; the scabbard and guard of steel. 

It is rather heavy, and not particularly well balanced. 

The heavy-cavalry sabre is somewhat longer and straighter. 

The lance has a point 8 inches long above the knob ; two iron straps 
extend some 3 feet down the shaft, which is about 9 feet long ; the butt 
tipped with iron ; pennon black and yellow ; the ordinary lance-sling. 

The ordinary carbine and pistol present nothing remarkable ; the pistol 
has no strap to the butt. 

The pistol-carbine has been introduced, and will probably supplant the 
old firearms. It is a long single-barrel pistol, with a carbine-stock, 
which is attached by two spring catches, so that it may be used either as 
a pistol or carbine ; the stock, when detached, is carried in one of the 
holsters. 

The barrel of this weapon is rifled, with 4 shallow grooves, having i 



AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 323 

of a turn, and is 10 j iuclies long; it has the same calibre and lock as 
the new-pattern infantry musket, which does not differ materially from 
our own last model. 

The sabre-belt is a plain leather waist-belt, with two slings, the shorter 
of which may be lengthened or shortened by means of a buckle ; when 
the man is mounted, the length of this sling is such that the pommel of 
the sabre hangs about 1 inch below the waist-belt; on foot it is shortened, 
so that the sabre may not drag upon the ground. The belt fastens with 
an (y^ hook for the officers, with a buckle for the men. 

The carbine-sling is like our own ; the pistol, or carbine, rammer is 
attached to a strap sewed to this sling. 

The carbine is always carried on the sling, never being put in a boot 
nor attached to the saddle. 

The cartridge-box is of plain black leather, and slung to an ordinary 
shoulder-belt ; it contains 24 rounds, and has at one end a small com- 
partment for cleaning-utensils. 

The sabre-knot is flat, and of leather. 

In the field the sabres are first ground, and afterwards whetted every 
two or three weeks. I was informed that although the steel scabbard 
dulls the sabre it is regarded as being, on the whole, better than wood, 
as not being so liable to injury by fire, kicks, &c. 

In time of war the lance-points are kept sharp by filing. The firearms 
are only used on guard, vedette, &c., to give the alarm, it being taken 
as a maxim to trust only to the steel. There were several instances 
during the Hungarian war when the Hungarian hussars stopped to fire; 
the result invariably was that they were ridden over by the lancers. 

Many of the officers think that the sabre should be more curved, as 
they prefer cutting to pointing. 

It is a well-recognized principle that a dull sabre is entirely useless. 

When lancers use the sabre, they rest the lance on the left arm. 

No pains are spared to perfect the men in the use of their weapons ; 
for they regard this and individual horsemanship as the most important 
qualifications of the cavalry soldier. 

The hussars wear a sabretasche attached to the waist-belt. 

HORSE EQUIPMENTS. 

The Hungarian saddle is used in most regiments. 

The figure on page 324 represents a side view of that saddle. 

It is of hard wood, entirely uncovered, and consists of the bais (c), the 
front fork (o), the rear fork (i), and the saddle-seat or straining-strap 
(d). The ends of the forks (e, e) are let into mortises in the bars, and 
secured by raw-hide thongs passing through mortises {p, p). 

The saddle-seat, or straining-leather, is a stout strap of leather, from 



324 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



11^ to 13| inches long, 4 2 inches broad at the hind fork, 3 J to 4 in the 
middle, 2^- to 3 at the front fork. 

It is secured to the front fork by 4 flat-headed nails, a strip of leather 
being first laid over the end of the strap, as seen at/! 

As the greatest strain comes upon its junction with the hind fork, it is 
secured to it difi'erently. At each angle of the strap a stout thong is left 
when cutting it out; this thong is passed around the neck of the fork, 
and secured by a nail in rear; 5 flat-headed nails are then driven through 
the strap into the fork; under the head of each nail a round piece of 
leather is placed, to prevent the strap from being cut or worn; /' shows 
this arrangement. 




The strap is attached to the bars by raw-hide thongs drawn tight, as 
shown in the figure. The forks are strengthened by light iron plates 
nailed to the front of the front fork and the rear of the hind fork. 

The girth is attached to the bars by thongs passing through the holes 
(g). The stirrup-leathers pass through the mortises (A) and in the notch. 
(m), a groove being cut in the under surface of the bar to receive the 
leather. The holes (i) are for the purpose of attaching the straps which 
secure the holsters ; those at k for attaching the crupper. Near the upper 
end of eacR fork is a mortise; that in the front fork to receive the cloak- 
strap, that in the rear fork to receive the valise-strap. 

On the front end of the right bar is the name of the horse; on the left 
bar is the number of the horse, {e.g. 14,) and the government brand. 

The girth is of leather, 3 2 inches broad, and fastens by a large buckle 
on the left side. 

Crupper and breast-strap present nothing unusual. 



AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 325 

The blanket generally used is a common wliite one, folded thrice 
lengthwise, and four times in the other direction. 

A thick felt saddle-cloth, of one thickness, is used in the riding-schools, 
and is spoken of in the highest terms. 

The men sometimes place a straw mat under the blanket. 

Four sizes of saddles are issued to the light cavalry; six to the heavy. 

The surcingle is of black .leather, and is fastened in the Mexican style 
by a thong and rings. 

The stirrups are of steel, with a large, round, flat bottom, and a flat, 
thin, and deep arch; in winter a little mat of straw is tied to the bottom 
of the stirrup, to protect the feet against the cold. 

One shoe-pouch, of black leather, is carried attached to the right side 
of the rear fork; it contains 2 shoes and 32 nails; the nails are carried 
stuck in a species of circular pin-cushion made of plaited straw. 

Lance-boot, small, and of leather; one on each stirrup of- lancers. 

The two holsters are strapped to the saddle; two slits in the schabraque, 
which may be closed by buckles, allo^y the pistols to be drawn. 

Over the holsters are carried two bags of hair cloth, (called pack-tor- 
nisters,) about 1 foot square. In the left-hand bag are carried : razor, 
soap, shaving-brush, looking-glass in wooden frame, (4 J" X 3",) hair- 
comb, beard-comb, wax for the moustache, thread of various colors, case 
of needles, thimble, white wax, patches of cloth, buttons, pantaloon- 
straps, spare rowels, button-loops, scissors, a curved and a straight awl, 
shoemakers' thread and wax, colophony, sight-cover, clothes-brush, linen 
cap-cover, iron halter-ring with screw, whetstone, tooth-brush, towel, a 
pennon, i lb. bread, some oats, and on the outside a forage-cap and tent-pin. 

In the right-hand bag are carried : curry-comb, horse-brush, a couple 
of cloths, a fleam, paring-knife, mane-comb, five brushes for removing 
the mud, waxing, polishing, coloring, and greasing the boots and horse 
equipment, (each brush 5" X 21",) wax of 3 kinds, cork stopper, box of 
grease, brick-dust, iron-filings, box of chalk, button-stick, brush for clean- 
ing brass, rotten stone, pumice-stone, screw-driver, emery-stick, patches 
of cloth, white chalk, bran, knife, fork, spoon, salt, herbs, handles of the 
kettle, and slippers. 

These, with a few other articles that it is scarcely worth while to name, 
fi)rm a collection that would do credit to a well-supplied store, but seem 
to be rather too numerous for the good of the horse. 

The valise is of cloth, and is strapped to the can tie; in it are carried: 
1 pair of pants, the uniform coat, or spencer, the overalls when not in 
use, 2 shirts, 2 pairs of drawers, 1 pair of linen cloths for wrapping the feet, 
1 pocket handkerchief, 1 pair of gloves. 

The schabraque of cloth, with black lamb's-wool seat. 

Four men in each platoon carry a hatchet, strapped to the left holster. 



826 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

The bridle consists of a crown-piece, brow-band, throat-latch, nose- 
band, 2 cheek-pieces, and 2 pairs of reins; the front is ornamented by 
diagonal plaited cords, as in the Russian service; the cheek-pieces are 
single where they buckle to the crown-piece, and are split below, the 
longer end buckling to the curb- bit, the shorter connecting with the 
snaffle by a chain and toggle. 

Both bits are of steel; there are 3 patterns of curbs, of different degrees 
of severity; the curb-chain is also of steel. 

The reins buckle to ordinary bit-rings. 

The halter has a plain headstall, and a rope 6' long, of the thickness 
of the little finger; by attaching the snaffle-bit it becomes a watering-bridle. 

On the march, the halter is hung on the left side of the pommel. 

Two forage-ropes are carried, hung to the.cantle. 

The forage-sack is a long linen bag, with a longitudinal opening in the 
middle; when empty, it is carried on the pommel. 

On the march, it contains the oats and bread, equally divided between 
the two ends ; in this case it is attached to the rear fork. 

The hay is also attached to the rear fork. 

The overcoat and stable-frock are on the pommel. 

The stable-blanket girth is in the forage-sack. 

The camp-kettle is carried on the end of the valise. 

The picket-pins for light cavalry are of wood, 16" long, and 2" in 
diameter ; there is a small iron ring near the head for attaching the halter- 
rope ; each man carries one strapped to his right holster. 

The picket-pins of the heavy cavalry are from 3j' to 4' long; the pin 
is carried in a boot, attached by a long strap to the right holster, the butt 
end being secured by means of a small strap from the surcingle. 

The handle of the curry-comb unscrews. 

Bridles are issued to the regiments cut out, but not sewed together. 

In bivouac, the schabraque is used to cover the equipment. 

The saddle-blanket is used as a horse-cover in bivouac during bad 
weather, and in garrison in the daytime only. 

The equipments and arms are kept in the corridors of the quarters. 

Officers use the English saddle in the i-iding-schools, but on parade 
they must appear with the Hungarian tree, which, for them, is covered 
with leather. 

The spurs are of steel, with short shanks, and are screwed permanently 
to the heel of the boot 

Martingales are exceptionally used, — for horses that will persist in 
throwing up the head continually. 

The men usually make a spare schabraque out of old blankets : this 
alone is used at drill ; on the march it is placed on top of the other. 

The saddle and equipment, packed, weigh 50 pounds. 



AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 327 

The men always ride on the curb, passing the snaffle-reins through a 
loop on the curb-reins, and allowing them to hang loose. 

CLOTHING. 

The clothing is well made, and of most excellent material. 

In the issue of clothing, each article is supposed to be divided into a 
certain number of portions, and every man is allowed a certain number 
of portions per annum, which he may draw in whatever articles he 
pleases. The clothing is issued to the squadron captains either made up, 
without being trimmed, or merely in the shape of the raw material, — just 
as they elect. 

The system of portions is also pursued with regard to the horse equip- 
ment, each captain drawing the number allowed his squadron in whatever 
articles happen to be required. 

The overcoat for all the cavalry is of thick white cloth, with sleeves 
and a long cape ; it is made very long and loose. 

It may here be stated that this white cloth, of which the uniform coats 
of the infantry are also made, is stated by the Austrian officers to be 
excellent for the field; it is cleaned by washing and pipe-clay; and they 
seem to prefer it to any other color. 

The uniform coat is a short, double-breasted frock, with a standing 
collar, cut away in front; the lancers alone wear epaulettes. This coat is 
white for the heavy cavalry ; dark green for the lancers ; light or dark 
blue for the hussars. 

A spencer, of the same color as the coat, is worn by all the cavalry on 
certain occasions ; it has a rolling collar, and is made so loose that it may 
be worn over the uniform coat. 

The men may wear a vest if they please. 

The pants are rather scant; those of the hussars fit perfectly tight to 
the leg, and are worn under the boots ; those of the other cavalry are re- 
enforced with leather as far up as the knee. 

For the heavy cavalry the pants are light blue, with a red cord ; for the 
rest of the cavalry they are of the color of the coat. 

The hussars wear boots reaching nearly to the knee; the rest of the 
cavalry wear half-boots. No spare boots are carried on the march. 

The stable-frock, neatly made of coarse white linen, serves as a uniform 
coat in the summer. No linen pants are issued or worn. For service in 
cold weather, gray cloth overalls are issued ; they button all the way up, 
both on the inside and outside of the legs. On the march, in winter, the 
men wear the vest, uniform coat, spencer, cloak, pants, and overalls. 

Socks are not worn, but are replaced by linen bandages. 

Shirts and drawers are issued. 

The forage-cap is the same for all the cavalry ; it is of a very dark 

20 



328 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



color, and is somewhat of the shape of the French kepis, the visor being 
more peaked, and the top larger. 

The heavy cavalry wear a metallic helmet, with a high crest. The 
lancers wear the well-known Polish lancer hat. The hussars wear a 
cylindrical shako, with a peaked visor. 

The shoulders being bare, except for the lancers, the distinction of 
grade is on the collar and cuffs. For officers, it is as follows: a 2d lieu- 
tenant has one star, embroidered in gold or silver, on each side of the 
collar; a 1st lieutenant has two stars; a captain, three; a major has a 
.narrow strip of lace on the cuffs and on the front and upper edges of the 
collar; also, one star on each side of the collar; a lieutenant-colonel has 
the same lace, and two stars ; a colonel, the same lace, and three stars ; a 
general of brigade has the cuff and collar wholly covered with plain lace, 
and one star ; a general of division, the same lace, and two stars ; a full 
general, the same lace, and three stars ; a field-marshal has the cuff and 
collar partly covered with waving lace, and has three stars. 

A sergeant has three stars on each side of his collar ; a corporal has 
two ; a private of the 1st class, one. 

On certain occasions the officers wear silk sashes, colored black and 
yellow. 

The stock, for both officers and men, has a flap, like the Russian ; the 
upper edge of the stock is white. 

Gloves, or mittens, of cloth, are issued to the men. 



RATIONS. 

The food of the Austrian soldier consists chiefly of bread and soup. 
From 1^ to 2 pounds of bread is the daily ration. 

An allowance of from 5 to 10 cents per diem, according to the price 
of food, is made to each man, to enable him to purchase meat (generally 
J pound) and vegetables for soup. 

In garrison, they have soup but once a 
day, — about noon ; in camp, they also have 
soup soon after reveille. 

In the field, hard bread is generally used. 
The men generally make their breakfast 
and supper on a piece of bread and a little 
glass of brandy purchased at the sutler's. 

COOKING-UTENSILS. 

Kettles of the annexed shape and dimen- 
sions are used by the cavalry in garrison 
and in the field. The handle of the kettle can be unhooked, and is carried 
in one of the tornisters ; there is also a straight handle for the top, so 




AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 329 

that it may be used as a frying-pan; this handle, also, is carried in the 
tornister. 

There is one of these kettles for every six men. 

It is carried by that man of the mess who has the strongest horse. A 
linen bag is put over the valise, to keep it clean ; then the kettle is put on 
one end, the cover on the other; a second bag, over the whole, secures the 
kettle. 

Each man has a spoon, and they eat in common out of the kettle, in 
the field. 

In the field, ovens are made of wattling, mud, and straw, as described in 
Laisn^s's Aide-M6moire du Genie. 

HORSES. 

The miiiimum height of the heavy-cavalry horses is 15 hands 1 inch. 
• Do. do. light do. 14 " 1 " 

Some of the light-cavalry horses are even below this mark. 

Stallions are not used in ranks. 

The horses are branded on the left hip with the initials of the emperor, 
and of the province where purchased ; on the left side of the neck, under 
the mane, is branded the number of the horse. They are purchased by a 
commission of cavalry officers, and issued to the regiments as required. 
If the captain objects to receiving a horse, he appeals to the colonel, who 
decides. 

Horses are received at the age of 5 years, as a general rule ; they are 
broken in by old soldiers, under the direction of the 2d captain of the 
squadron. 

If a soldier rides the same horse for 8 years, he receives a gratuity of 
about S7, and $2.50 for every additional year. If he rides him for 20 
years, he becomes the owner of the horse and equipment, and may take 
him away when he leaves the service. 

The horses of the same squadron are not necessarily of the same 
color. 

Lieutenants and 2d captains are allowed one government horse each, 
and forage for two private horses ; above the grade of 2d captain, officers 
must own their own horses. If an officer allowed a government horse uses 
him for 8 years, he becomes the property of the officer. 

A colonel is allowed forage for 6 horses in peace, for 7 in campaign. 

A lieutenant-colonel or major is allowed forage for 5 horses in peace, for 
6 in campaign. 

A first captain is allowed forage for 4 horses in peace, for 5 in campaign. 

A second captain is allowed forage for 3 horses in peace, for 4 in cam- 
paign. 

A lieutenant is allowed forage for 8 horses in peace, for 3 in camjtaign. 



330 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

For a certain proportion of these horses commutation for forage may be 
drawn, although the officer does not actually possess the horses. 

In addition to the allowance of forage, a certain monthly allowance in 
money is given to assist the officer in keeping on hand the proper number 
of horses ; this allowance is as follows : 

For a colonel, about $10. 

For a lieutenant-colonel or major, about $8. 

For a 1st captain, about $6.50. 

For a 2d captain, about $4. 

For a lieutenant, about $2.50. 

Very few of the horses used in the army come from the government 
breeding-establishments, these consisting mainly of good stallions, and 
having for their object the improvement of the breed in the country. 

The heavy-cavalry horses are principally from the German provinces ; 
they are of fine appearance, but generally wanting in endurance, being 
often long-legged and narrow-chested. 

The light-cavalry horses are excellent; they are of fine appearance, 
active, hardy, intelligent, and seldom vicious. They are mostly from 
Hungary, Transylvania, and Poland. Large numbers are imported from 
Russia. 

The average price of the cuirassier horses is $80. 
Do. do. dragoon " 65. 

Do. do. light-cavalry <' 56. 

FORAGE. 

The ration of a heavy-cavalry horse is 6 pounds of oats, 10 pounds of hay, 
2 pounds of straw ; for a light-cavalry horse it is 6 pounds of oats, 8 pounds 
of hay, 2 pounds of straw. 

Five days' rations are carried on the march. 

The hay is twisted into a rope, and then coiled into a circle ; 2 men are 
needed to twist it in different directions, first wetting it a little. 

In barracks there are 3 equal feeds each day; one at reveille, another at 
11 J, the last at dark. 

The horses are watered 3 times a day. 

As a general thing, the horses are not fed during a march. 

In the field, sickles are carried. 

The ration of straw mentioned above is for the litter. 

STABLES, AND STABLE-MANAGEMENT. 

The variations in the plan and arrangements of the stables are very 
great. In some there is a single passage-way, with a row of stalls on one 
side only; in others, a long hall, with a row of stalls on each side; in 
another, two halls, with two rows of stalls on each side of each hall. 



AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 331 

Some are for 8 horses, others for 16; others, again, for 200. 

In some, the mangers are of wood ; in others, of wood, lined with iron ; 
in others, of stone ; some of these mangers being continuous, others for a 
single horse. 

The hay-racks are generally of iron ; sometimes a rack for each horse, 
in other cases one long rack for many stalls. 

Single stone mangers, and iron racks, seem to be the best. 

In Vienna the stalls are floored with plank, the head of the stall being 
of clay, that the fore-feet may rest upon it ; a drain, covered with movable 
boards, runs along behind each row of stalls. 

In Verona there are stalls paved with small, round paving-stones. The 
passages are sometimes paved with stones, sometimes with wooden blocks. 

The roof is supported by pillars. The stalls are separated by swinging 
bars ; in the stables for officers' horses, cushions are suspended from these 
bars. 

There is a shelf over the rear of each stall ; a hook, or pin, on each 
post. 

The name of the man to whom the horse belongs is over each stall. 

As the quarters are usually over the stables, the racks are filled from be- 
low. The stalls are very large ^ in those of the stables of the 12th lancers, 
at Vienna, they are 11' long, and 5' 4" wide, with a passage-way of 9'. 

During the day the litter is generally laid on racks, under sheds, in 
the yard; in the stables of the riding-schools, the litter is kept down 
during the day. 

The stables are kept in good order; those of the riding-schools are 
patterns of neatness. 

No equipments are kept in the stables. 

The stable-guard consists of 1 non-commissioned officer per squadron, 
and 2 men per platoon; one of the latter must always be awake. 

Whenever any officer in uniform enters a stable, the man on duty at 
once reports to him the condition of afiairs. 

In some of the stables the racks for drying the forage are of iron, with 
sheet-iron roofs over them; these roofs can be turned up when the sun 
is oiit. 

Attached to one stable was a horse-bath, 5' deep, 18' wide, 30' long at 
bottom, 61' long at top, approached by a ramp at each end, — these ramps 
15' 6" long. 

Each man feeds his own horse; he stands at the foot of the stall, and 
receives from the non-commissioned officer, as he passes down, the por- 
tion for his horse. When all the men have received their portions, the 
non-commissioned officer reports to the officer of the day, at whose com- 
mand the men place the food in the manger and rack, and stand by their 
horses while feeding. 



332 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

DAILY DUTY IN GARRISON. 

In summer and winter, reveille is at from 5 o'clock to 6 o'clock. 

At reveille the men put on their pants and stable-frocks, fold up their 
beds, and go to the stable, one man remaining in every room to police it. 
They then rub down the horses with straw, remove the litter, water and 
feed, clean the horse with the brush while he is feeding. 

In cleaning, the curry-comb is used only to clean the brush : it is never 
applied to the horse. 

They then return to the quarters, wash, dress, and take their breakfast, 
which is a piece of bread and a glass of brandy. 

At about 8 o'clock there is a drill, or else the horses are taken out for 
exercise; in any event, the horses are saddled, that the men may have 
some occupation, and keep the equipment in order. When the drill is' 
over, they unbridle, put on the halter, and loosen the girths, carry the 
bridle and arms to the quarters, put on the stable-frock, return to the 
stable, and unsaddle. 

They then rub the horses 'down with straw; carry the saddles to the 
quarters; clean them, as well as the bridle, arms, &c. 

At 11 5 is the second feed. 

After feeding the horses, the men have their dinner. 

The guard and picket saddle up, and get ready for guard-mounting, 
which is at 12 5. 

The rest of the men sleep, or do what they please, until 2 o'clock; at 
which hour the horses are cleaned with the brush. 

Until nearly dark the men are then at school, where they are taught 
the duties of patrols, sentinels, &c., the names of the officers, &c., &c. 

About dark they go to the stables, make down the litters, water the 
horses, take off the blankets, give the last feed, and leave the horses 
quiet with the stable-guard. 

They then return to the quarters, whence they may be absent until 8 
o'clock, unless they have a pass for a longer time. 

Must be in bed at 9 o'clock. Before going to bed they grease their boots, 
and stick them in the pants, so as to be ready in case of a sudden alarm. 

At tattoo and reveille the roll-calls are by platoon. 

A picket consisting of an officer and 10 men is always ready for patrol 
duty; their horses are in a separate stable, saddled, but not bridled. 

The sergeants and corporals do not clean their own horses; this is done 
by the dismounted men. 

While we were in Vienna, on the morning of the 9th January, at 6 a.m., 
the 12th lancers were suddenly alarmed; in 40 minutes the regiment was 
formed in marching-order, baggage packed, platoons told off, officers at 
their posts, &c. This was considered sharp work for quarters. 



AUSTRIAN C AVAL UY. 333 

The whole garrison was alarmed at the same moment; this is done, 
not unfrequently, by the emperor. 

QUARTERS. 

The quarters are generally over the stables. 

The rooms open upon a corridor; about 20 men are in each room. 

The sergeants have a separate room ; the corporals are with the men 
of their platoons. 

Each man has an iron bedstead, a bed-sack filled with straw, (which is 
renewed every three months,) a straw pillow, and 2 blankets : these arti- 
cles of bedding all belong to the barrack, and not to the man; they are 
under the charge of a barrack-master. 

The valise, tornisters, and cleaning-utensils are kept in the quarters. 

The clothes are either hung upon pins at the head of the bed, or are 
on a shelf. 

The name of each man is over his bed. 

In every room are tables and benches for messing. 

The arms and equipments are kept in the corridors, on racks and 
stands; the carbines are hung on a pin by the guard, muzzles down. 

Some of the officers are required to lodge in the barrack; the others 
have quarters elsewhere, and receive a commutation. 

DUTIES OF OFFICERS, ETC. 

The 1st captain is responsible for the arms, horses, &c.; he makes 
returns to the colonel twice each year. He is the. only squadi'on officer 
who can inflict punishment, — except on detachment, when the detached 
officer has equal powers. He may confine men for 48 hours in irons; he 
can inflict 20 lashes; but if he abuses his power the colonel may pro- 
hibit him from exercising it. 

The 2d captain is in general charge of the 2d half squadron, but is 
more especially charged with the instruction of recruits and young horses. 

Each lieutenant is in charge of a platoon, and is responsible for its 
order, cleanliness, &c. ; he can inflict no punishment; he forms part of 
his platoon, and always accompanies it on detachment, drill, &c. 

The 1st sergeant has duties similar to those of the same grade in the 
United States service; he is in charge of the papers, military duties, 
details, &c. 

The 2d sergeant is more particularly under the control of the 2d cap- 
tain, in charge of the recruits and young horses. 

The corporals are divided equally among the platoons, and are in 
charge of the rooms, guards, &c., &c. 

Muster-rolls are sent in by the captain every month ; they are checked 
and countersigned by the paymaster, adjutant, and intendant. 



334 . THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

The meu are paid every five days. 

Regular musters are held only once in each year, and not always so 
often. They are made by the general of brigade and a military commis- 
sary ; at these the roll is called, the horses counted, &c. 

MARCHES, ETC. 

Marches are conducted at the rate of from 3 to 4 miles per hour, (for 
the most part at a walk,) and usually last about 5 hours. 

Over very rough or steep ground the horses are generally led. 
The hussars march long distances at the trot, and know no obstacles ; 
rivers, marshes, mountains, and obstructed ground, check their course 
but little. 

About half an hour after starting, a short halt is made, to allow the 
horses to urinate ; only those men dismount whose girths need tighten- 
ing. At the middle of the march a halt of half an hour is made. 
The men are severely punished for not girthing tight. 
As already remarked, the men ride on the curb on the march, the 
snaffle-reins hanging free. The stirrup-leathers are of such a length 
that, the leg hanging naturally, the bottom of the stirrup shall be 1" 
above the spur; with hard-gaited horses the stirrups are somewhat 
shorter. 

No tents are carried in the field ; the men hut themselves. 
The officers seldom carry any mess-apparatus, but partake of the food 
of the men. 

The following wagons, &c., are allowed in campaign : 

For each field officer, 1 wagon 5 wagons. 

For medicines 1 " 

Regimental chest ... 1 " 

In each division, for spare shoes, saddles, &c., 1 wagon 4 " 
Forge 1 " 

Total of wagons for a regiment of 8 squadrons.... 12 " 
Each squadron officer is allowed forage for 1 pack-horse ; on this he 
places a small portmanteau, or pair of hair bags. But these pack-animals 
are often ordered to be left in depot; and in this case the baggage is put 
on one of the spare horses. 

Each officer's servant usually rides one of his master's spare horses. 
The weight carried by a light-cavalry horse in the field is : 

"Weight of saddle and equipment 50 pounds. 

5 days' hay (8 pounds for light cavalry) 40 " 

5 days' oats (at 6 pounds) 30 " 

5 days' bread (at 2 pounds) 10 " 

Load of light-cavalry horse 1?0 " 



AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 335 

This is exclusive of tlie arms, ammunition, and rider. 
Before going into action, the men generally manage to throw away the 
hay, and "bleed" the forage-bags. 

SCHOOL OF EQUITATION. 

The central cavalry school of equitation is at Vienna. A lieutenant 
from every regiment of cavalry is sent thither, — 40 in all. 

Each officer brings a soldier with him to take care of his horses ; but 
this soldier receives no instruction. The practice of instructing non- 
commissioned officers has been abandoned. The officer brings with him 
his own ''imperial service horse" and that of the soldier. 

There are also about 100 horses belonging to the school, with grooms 
especially for them. 

The course of instruction lasts for 2 years ; one-half of the officers are 
changed every year. 

The instruction consists of equitation, stable-duty, fencing, and the 
veterinary art ; for the latter they attend the veterinary school. 

They ride several hours each day, almost always using the English 
saddle, and frequently leaping, &c., without stirrups or girths. 

They become excellent riders, and manage their horses well. 

A good anatomical museum is attached to the school; it contains 
natural preparations, the Augoux models, plates, &c. 

There is also a good fencing-room. 

There are two fine riding-halls ; one is 288' by 72', the other 175' 
by 56'. 

The floor is a mixture of clay and sand. 

The stables are excellent; one, in particular, is probably the finest in 
the world. 

In this connection, it may be well to give the dimensions of the riding- 
halls and stables of the school for artillery and engineers, now in course 
of construction at Wiener Neustadt, near Vienna, as they are regarded 
as models. 

The riding-hall is to be 288' long, 62' wide, and 27' high. 

The stables are to be for 144 horses ; the roof arched, with 2 stalls 
under each arch. The ventilation and light over the stalls in the roof; 
the forage and equipment to be kept in rooms over the corridor. 

The coiTidor is 8' wide; stalls, 12' X 5', and 15' high; mangers, of 
marble, 3' X 1', and 3' 8" above the floor ; the racks, 5' 2" above the 
floor, and 1' 6" high ; bottom of manger, 2' from the floor. 

Open riding-grounds are attached to every cavalry barrack. 



336 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

THE Veterinary school. 

This is at Vienna. Its chief purpose is to instruct veterinary surgeons 
for the army. 

The full course is of 3 years ; for certain purposes, 2 years ; for ordi- 
nary farriers, merely to learn to shoe the horse, 6 months. 

It is much on the principle of that at Berlin, hut is more extensive, 
and better organized. 

The collections of natural history and comparative anatomy are most 
excellent; they embrace not only stuffed specimens of many animals, 
birds, and fishes, skeletons, bones, jaws, teeth, &c., but also admirable 
preparations of the muscles of the different parts of the horse, the veins, 
arteries, &c., — diseased, as well as sound. 

There is a fine collection of instruments for operations on the eye, ear, 
urinary organs, &c., as well as for amputations, docking, bleeding, &c. 

For bleeding in the neck, the spring lancet is used. 

A laboratory, lecture-rooms, dissecting-rooms, rooms for the injection 
of preparations, &c., are attached to the institution. 

The apothecary establishment is very complete and well arranged; the 
number of remedies in the pharmacopoeia is reduced to 160. 

The stables are rooms opening upon a corridor; some of these rooms 
are for single horses, others for two, four, six, and ten. 

They are clean, but hot and badly ventilated. 

The animals affected with internal diseases are in different stables from 
those troubled with external diseases; glandered horses are kept in separate 
stables. 

Glanders is regarded as incurable; they keep the horse long enough to 
be certain that he is really afflicted with that disease, and then kill him. 

In 1854, two of the students died of glanders; they died in about 8 
months after being inoculated, the first symptom being an incurable ulcer 
on the hand. 

They never cauterize for the lampass, but administer purgatives and 
green food, and bleed by drawing the lancet between the bars. 

The forges, tools, and shoes are very rough and clumsy. 

Formerly very complicated machinery was used in shoeing the horse, 
but they have now learned that the very moderate number of 3 men will 
suffice, without artificial aids: one man, by the assistance of a cavesson 
and mruwierism, holds and controls the horse, another holds his foot, a third 
puts on the shoe. It is possible that they may learn to dispense with one 
or two of these assistants, as well as with mesmerism. 

The shoe is always fitted and put on cold. 

There are usually 6 nails in each shoe. 

In summer the shoe is plain, with neither toes nor heels; in winter it 



AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 337 

has both. For the horses of the officers, in winter, one heel is firmly 
attached to the shoe, the other can be unscrewed; on leaving the stable, 
the blunt movable heel is replaced by a pointed one. 

The men pay for the shoeing of their horses; a very small daily allow- 
ance is given them to cover this expenditure. 

The greatest possible attention is paid in the regiments to the con- 
dition of the shoes; it is justly regarded as one of the most important 
points. 

At the veterinary school, dogs, cows, sheep, &c., are treated. Sheep 
are kept here to be inoculated for a disease quite similar in its phenomena 
to the small-pox; the animal is inoculated upon the bare lower surface of 
the tail, the matter collected from the pustules and distributed among 
the great sheep-proprietors of the country. 

This disease formerly killed off some 40,000 per annum in the empire ; 
now scarcely one dies of it. 

This veterinary school may be regarded as one of the very best in Europe, 
and is well worthy of imitation. 



VETERINARY SURGEONS, ETC. 

As lias been already stated, each regiment has a senior veterinary 
surgeon; each squadron a veterinary surgeon. 

The first has the rank of a first sergeant, the second that of a corporal. 

They are all educated at the veterinary school, and are either the chil- 
dren of veterinaries, or else well-conducted soldiers whose original pursuit 
was that of a horseshoer. 

They generally shoe the horses themselves, as well as treat their 
diseases; they always instruct three or four good men in the squadron, 
who act as their assistants. 

The pay of a senior veterinary surgeon is about $12 per month; the 
squadron veterinaries receive about $9 per month. 

Both are permitted to practise upon the horses of civilians, on their 
own account, and also receive a small additional stipend for their services 
in treating the squadron horses; this last amounts to from $9 to $10 per 
month. 

The horses are shod about once in five weeks. 

The evening before a horse is to be shod, he is caused to stand in wet 
clay; if no clay is to be had, a mixture of dung and mud is substituted, 
or else the foot is wrapped in rags filled with dung. 

The effect of this is to soften the hoof and facilitate the operation of 
paring and shoeing;; it is represented as being attended with the most 
beneficial effect. 

Very little of the hoof and frog is cut away. 



338 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

The number of medicines used in the regiments is very small. Nadosy's 
" Equitations-Studien/' and Professor Eolls's works, contain the Austrian 
views of the veterinary art. 



GENERAL REMARKS. 

The imperfect sketch of the Austrian cavalry given in the preceding 
pages will show that, as might have been expected, it presents .many 
things well worthy of imitation, and much to be avoided. 

The foundation of the efficiency and well-deserved reputation of the 
Austrian cavalry would seem to be the great perfection of the individual 
instruction of the men : without this, no organization, however perfect it 
maybe, can lead to good results; with it, the defects of a very bad organi- 
zation may be overcome or lost sight of. 

The system pursued in the purchase of horses is good. 

The manner of posting the officers in a division is worthy of the most 
attentive consideration. There may well occur exceptional cases in which 
it is absolutely necessary that the officers should be in front of the men 
to lead and encourage them in desperate situations; but it would seem 
that the Austrians have good reasons for placing the officers in the ranks. 
They say that since the officers have, as a general rule, perfect control 
over their horses, they will keep them in the proper direction, and thus 
prevent the men from opening out, the charge being thus rendered com- 
pact and effective : they state that this formation results from the expe- 
rience of actual charges upon an enemy. The general features of their 
veterinary system might be followed in our service to great advantage. 

Their system of depot squadrons is good, and produces good results. 
The cooking-utensils seem to be well adapted to the end in view. The 
tactical unit would appear to be entirely too large to permit the great 
mobility and celerity which are the essential conditions of the success of 
cavalry ; this defect is probably overcome only by the perfection of indivi- 
dual instruction. 

The number of things carried by the men, and the excessive weight of 
the equipment, seem pernicious and absurd in the extreme. I was in- 
formed by cavalry officers that the men usually manage to throw away 
the greater part of their load before many days passed in the field. 

The number of non-commissioned officers is too small, in comparison 
with the number of privates. 

The exercises preliminary to the instruction in equitation are worthy 
of imitation ; while it would by no means be advisable to follow blindly 
all their conditions for a good seat. 

The articles of clothing would appear to be altogether too bulky : no 
doubt the comfort of the man is a very important consideration ; but, if 



AUSTRIAN CAVALRY. 339 

that object is gained at the expense of the efficiency of the horse, the result 
cannot be doubtful. 

In conclusion, I would state that much valuable information may be 
derived from the Cavalry Tactics, Nadosy's " Equitations-Studien," Half- 
zensir's " Innern Dienst der Cavallerie," and other works ; those men- 
tioned are in the possession of the War Department, and should, by all 
means, be consulted by any officers engaged in the preparation of a revised 
system for our own cavalry. 



340 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 



The French cavalry estahlishment consists of — 
1 squadron of '' Cent-Gardes." 



6 regiments of the guard. 



12 regiments of reserve cavalry. 



20 regiments of the line , 



2 


of cuirassiers, 
of dragoons, 
of lancers, 
of chasseurs, 
of guides, (hussars 
squadron of gensdf 


•) 
in 


2 of carbineers. 
10 of cuirassiers. 




12 

8 


of dragoons, 
of lancers. 




12 
9 
4 


of chasseurs. 

of hussars. 

of African chasseurs 



25 regiments of light cavalry. 



3 regiments of spahis. 
9 remount companies. 
1 cavalry school, at Saumur. 
The mounted gensdarmes. 
Each regiment consists of 6 squadrons, with the exception of the 
African chasseurs, which, during the late war, were increased to 8 squad- 
rons, of which 4 remained in Africa and 4 served in the Crimea. 
In time of war, each regiment has a depot squadron. 
The duration of service is 7 years. 
The regulation height of cavalry soldiers is as follows : 

Carbineers minimum, 5' 10".4. 

Cuirassiers " 5' 9".2. 

Dragoons and lancers " 5' 8" maximum, 5' 10".4. 

Chasseurs and hussars " 5' 6".8 " 5' 8".8. 

African chasseurs " 5' 6".8 " 5' 9".6. 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 341 

The following is the composition of a regiment of three squadrons : 



The staff : 

Colonel 

Lieutenant-colonel 

Chiefs of squadrons (field officers) 

Major 

Captain (instructor) 

Adjutants (captains) 

Treasurer (captain) 

Clothing officer (captain) 

Assistant treasurer (sub-lieutenant) 

Standard-bearer (sub-lieutenant) 

Senior surgeon , 

Assistant surgeon 

Sub-assistant surgeon 

Veterinary of the first class 

Total commissioned staff. 

The non-commissioned staff : 

Adjutants (sergeants) 

Adjutant, wagon-master (sergeant) 

Assistant veterinaries 

Chief trumpeter (sergeant) 

Trumpeter (corporal) 

Trumpeters (for the depot squadron) 

Farriers (for the depot squadron) 

Total non-commissioned staff 

Platoon out of ranks : 

First clerk of treasurer (sergeant) 

Sergeant in charge of clothing-magazine 

Sergeant in charge of stables 

Sergeant (fencing-master) 

Master armorer, master tailor, master boot-maker 

(sergeants) 

Master saddler (sergeant) 

Quartermaster of the staff (sergeant) 

Second clerk of treasurer (corporal) 

Provosts (corporals) 

Saddler (corporal) 

Tailor and boot-maker (corporals) 

Major's clerk (private) 

Third clerk of treasurer (private) 

Second clerk of clothing officer (private) 

Attached to horse hospital (private) 

Armorers (privates) ...•. 

Saddlers (privates) 

Tailors (privates) 

Boot-makers (privates) 

Enfant de troupe 

The number of tailors and boot-makers varies with the 
effective strength of the regiment. 



18 



13 



54 



10 



17 



29 



54 



342 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



TABLE.— Continued. 



W 



Squadron of cavalry of reserve : 

Captain commanding 

Second captain 

First lieutenant 

Second lieutenant 

Sub-lieutenants 

Total commissioned officers of a squadron. 

Orderly sergeant 

Sergeants 

Quartermaster sergeant 

Quartermaster corporal 

Corporals 

First-class privates 

o J , . . f mounted 

Second-class privates, < ■,■ , , 

^ ' (dismounted 

Farriers (shoeing-smitbs) 

Trumpeters 

Under instruction as trumpeters 

Enfants de troupe 

Total non-commissioned and privates 



1 

1 

16 

32 

88 

16 

3 

4 

2 

2 

171 



18 



1 

6 

1 

1 

12 

32 

69 

20 

3 

4 



154 151 



1 

6 
1 
1 

12 
32 
69 

'*2 
4 



128 



On tlie war establishment, each squadron of cavalry of the line has 98 
privates of the 2d class, and each squadron of light cavalry has 108. 





IN war. 


IN PEACE. 






00 

u 
o 


a 


a> 

u 
o 


Strength of a regiment of cavalry of reserve: 


18 
13 
54 
48 
1,044 


49 
10 

*108 
924 


17 

8 

54 

42 

906 


29 


Non-commissioned staflF. 

Platoon out of ranks 

Squadron officers 


8 
54 


Non-commissioned officers, privates, &c 


768 


Total 


1,177 


1,091 


1,027 


859 







INSTRUCTION AND TACTICS. 



No change of any importance has been made in the system since it was 
adopted as the basis of our own ; it is therefore unnecessary to remark 
upon it. 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 343 

ARMS AND ACCOUTREMENTS. 

Carbineers and cuirassiers. — Metallic helmet, back and breast pieces, 
pistol, and sabre. The sabre has a Montmorency blade, very slightly curved. 

Drarjoons. — Sabre, pistol, and musket. The sabre is the same as that 
of the cuirassiers. The musket has no bayonet; barrel, 36" long, and 
weighs 7.9 pounds. On ordinary marches, on parade, &c., the musket is 
carried with the hutt in a boot, attached to the right side of the pommel ; 
this boot is 5" deep, 6" long, and 2f" wide. The muzzle of the musket 
rises about 3" above and behind the right shoulder, and is attached to the 
pommel by a strap. When in expectation of meeting an enemy, the 
musket is slung over the shoulder, muzzle up. 

Lancers. — Light-cavalry sabre, pistol, lance, musketoon. It has been 
proposed to abandon the musketoon : I do not know whether that has been 
done or not. 

Chasseurs. — rDragoon musket, light-cavalry sabre, and pistol. 

Mussars. — Musketoon, light-cavalry sabre, and pistol. The musketoon 
has both boot and sling. 

African chasseurs. — Armed as the other chasseurs, but always carry 
the musket slung over the left shoulder, — never in a boot. 

Spahis. — Musket and pistol as for the African chasseurs, but carry the 
sabre attached to the saddle, in the Mexican fashion. 

Cent- Gardes are cuirassiers, armed with a pistol, and a breech-loading 
carbine, with sabre bayonet : this bayonet is a very long, light, and nearly 
straight sabre, without guard ; alone, it is an excellent sabre ; when fixed 
on the carbine, it may be used, as a lance when mounted ; as an ordinary 
musket and bayonet on foot. 

In all the cavalry, the pistol is attached to the saddle by means of a 
strap fastened to a ring in the butt. 

The cartridge-box has a shoulder-belt, and contains 20 rounds ; the men 
carry spare packages of cartridges in their pouches, or wherever may be 
most convenient. 

The belts, &c., are quite like our own ; the sabre-belt fastens with an 
GO hook. 

A camp-hatchet is carried by the corporals and Ist-class privates. 

HORSE EQUIPMENTS. 

Our own being at present but little else than modifications of those 
generally in use in the French service, it is only necessary to describe 
those of the African chasseurs, and a model very recently adopted. 

The saddle of the African chasseurs is a plain wooden tree, with a pad 

on top, and no skirts ; the model not unlike our own, (the Grimsley,) but 

rather lower in the pommel and cantle. 

21 



■]44 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

The girth and surcingle are of leather ; stirrups steel ; no schabraque. 
Two shoe-pouches of the usual kind, for 2 shoes and 32 nails each, at- 
tached to the hind fork. Nose-bag of hair cloth. 

The valise is replaced by canvas saddle-bags, re-enforced with leather. 
The forage-bag and tente d'abri are fastened to the cantle. 

The pistol is in the left pouch ; the cloak strapped over th'e pouches ; 
each man has a hatchet in his right pouch. 

A common blanket is placed under the saddle. 

The bridle has a single headstall and a Spanish bit, (with a ring around 
the lower jaw,) the curb-reins attached by swivels, the snaffle-reins to 
rings on the same bit; the bit buckles to the headstall. 

Instead of a halter, a leather collar is used. 

The new saddle is the invention of Captain Cogent, director of the 
saddle-factory at Saumur. 

The tree is cut out of a single piece of white wood, the cantle only 
being glued on ; a piece of walnut, the grain running across the tree, is 
let into the pommel, and a thin strip veneered upon the front ends of the 
bars ; the pommel and cantle are lower than in the old model ; the whole 
is covered with wet raw hide, glued on, and sewed at the edges } no iron 
bolts or fastenings are used. 

The staples for the stirrup-leathers are fastened as usual. 

The most important feature in this saddle is the manner of arranging 
it so that a single size may be used for all horses, or for the same horses 
when their condition changes. 

The sketches on page 345 will explain the manner in which this is 
effected. Two. strips of cork, about 4" broad, i" thick, and as long as 
the bars of the saddle, are bent to the shape of the under surface of the 
bars ; to give them this shape, they are glued to the bars before the tree 
is covered with hide ; they are removed when they have taken a perma- 
nent set, trimmed, and covered. 

They are covered with thick felt on the side towards the horse's back, 
and with leather on the side towards the saddle ; a longitudinal slit being 
left in the leather, in order to insert strips of felt, to increase the thick- 
ness of the strips when necessary. The strips are attached to the saddle 
by means of small pins with heads, shown in figs. A, E, and F ; these are 
inserted in the holes m the iron plates G, and run forward into the slots ; 
the pins (0) at the rear end of the strips have each a hole through the 
neck J the small keys (M) are run through the holes (N) in the rear ends 
of the bars, and thus keep the strips firmly in position. 

The fig. A represents the under surface of the saddle, with the iron 
plates (G) let in ; the separate fig. G represents one of these plates, with 
3 holes and slots to receive the pins of the strips, riveted or screwed to 
the bars. Figs- B represent a plan and elevation of a strip; fig. E the 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 



345 



front end of a strip, with its pins ; fig. F the rear end, with a pin having 
a hole through its neck to receive the key-pin. 

Fig. C represents the cautle, N being the holes to receive the keys, and 
M being the keys secured by a light chain. 




Fig. D gives a front view of the saddle. 

For a small horse, the pins are placed in the holes nearest the axis of 
the saddle ; for a large horse, in the outside holes ; if a horse is narrow 
in the withers and broad at the loins, the pins are placed in the inside 
holes in front, and in the outside holes behind, and vice versa. 

The tree is covered with leather, and has the ordinary skirts. The 
girth, as adopted, is of black leather, and in two parts. 

The upper part is 4" broad, is screwed to bars, passes over the tree, 
under the cover, and projects equally on each side below the bars; at 



34(j THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

each end of this piece is an iron pin with a brass roller, as shown in the 
annexed figure. 

The other portion of the girth is a simple strap, 3" broad, 
^'^^'^AAAAAj with a large buckle at one end, and a tongue at the other. 
The tongue of this strap is passed downwards behind the 
roller on the . near side of the horse, then upwards through 
the roller on the off side, and buckled on the near side. 

Captain Cogent prefers extending the saddle-skirts, attach- 
ing the rollers to them, and using the girth just described. 

The saddle-blauket (which is also the horse-cover) is of thick felt 
cloth; it is attached to the pommel by a small strap passing through 
holes in the blanket, which is thus prevented from slipping back, and at 
the same time raised so as to keep a free channel for the circulation of 
air over the horse's spine. 

The valise is shaped on a former, hollowed out and covered with stiff 
leather where it crosses the spine, so that it cannot touch; there are 
pockets on the ends of the valise for the spare horseshoes and nails. 

The pouches are as usual; the holster is of wood, covered with raw 
hide, and is set inside of the left pouch. 

The saddle is not blackened. 

The new equipment weighs 15 lbs. less than the old. 

I am not positive as to the bridle which has been adopted ; that pro- 
posed by M. Cogent, and which I think has been accepted, is as follows : 

There is a snaflBe-bit, with branches; the mouth-piece in three 
parts. 

The curb has a cross-bar, and presents two striking peculiarities : 

1st. The curb-chain acts upon the nose, instead of the chin : to 
accomplish this, a ring is sewed to each side of the nose-band, close in 
front of the cheek-pieces; the chain, resting on the nose-band, passes 
through these rings, and then forward to the branches of the bit; the 
requisite leverage is thus obtained. 

2d. The mouth-piece is longer than the interval between the branches, 
the latter sliding through holes in the mouth-piece; the projection of 
the mouth-piece beyond the branches has a neck and head ; a ring catch 
at the end of the cheek-piece goes over this neck, and keeps the mouth- 
piece in its proper position ; by raising these ring catches, the mouth- 
piece is freed and may be slipped down to the bottom of the branches, so 
that the horse can feed freely. 

This arrangement did not strike me so favorably as the Russian : the 
latter is simpler, and cannot get out of order. 

There is in the possession of the War Department a pamphlet of Cap- 
tain Cogent's, giving the drawings of his bridle and bit. 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 34"' 



UNIFORM. 

This is so well known in our service that only a few remarks will be 
necessary. 

The frock-coat has not been adopted for the cavalry. 

The pants are very loose, and are re-enforced with black leather. 

Boots are worn, the spur being permanently. attached to the heel. 

All troops have both a full-dress and a forage cap ; the former is often 
left at home in time of war. 

The full-dress cap varies with the corps ; the undress is usually the 
kepis, which has a large straight visor and a loose conical top. 

The African chasseurs wear their full-dress cap in the field ; it is much 
like that of our infantry, rather smaller at top, and has no pompon ; their 
undress cap is the fez, a close-fitting red felt skull-cap, with a tassel. 

It should be remarked that the uniform and equipment of this admi- 
rable corps are solely for service: there is no attempt at ornament, and 
nothing superfluous is allowed. 

HORSES. 

In France there are 6, in Algiers 3, remount companies, each consist- 
ing of 1 captain, 5 lieutenants, and a variable number of men; their 
duty is the purchase and care of remount horses. 

Except at Saumur, there are no haras, properly so called ; that is to 
say, there are no breeding-studs to raise colts for the general service. At 
each remount depot there are stallions of the race most suitable for cross- 
ing with the mares of the vicinity; at the proper seasons of the year 
these are distributed among the villages to cover the mares of the couptry 
gratuitously. The proprietors of the colts are under no obligation to 
ofier them for sale to the government, b*it usually find it their interest to 
do so. 

Horses are purchased at from 4 to 7 years of age, and must be of 
French origin. 

The animal is brought to the commandant of the remount depot, and 
submitted to his inspection, without any price being named. If the com- 
mandant finds him unsuitable, he is at once rejected ; if the contrary is 
the case, he is brought before all the officers of the depot for a thorough 
examination. 

Each officer then writes his estimate of the value of the animal on a 
slip of paper; these papers are placed in a hat and shaken up, so that 
the estimate of each officer may not be known ; the mean of these esti- 
mates is then taken, and the commandant offers that price for the animal. 

If the owner accepts the offer, the price is paid at once ; if he refuses, 
the horse is at once sent away, for no bargaining is allowed. 



1 



Oi" to 15 




2" 


3" to 15 




Oi" 


Si" to 15 




2" 


ir to 15 




1" 


3" to 15 




li" 



848 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

It often liappeus that the owner receives a hu-gcr price than he would 
have demanded. • 

This system is stated to work admirably. 

The average price is fixed every year by the minister of war ; it is 
usually about as follows : 

For horses of the reserve cavalry §150 

" " artillery and cavalry of the line 120 

" " light cavjilry 100 

" *' train of artillery, engineers, and baggage 100 

For officers' horses ". ; 180 

The average height is fixed as follows : 

Reserve cavalrj* 15 hands 2" to IG hands. 

Artillery and cavalry of the line 15 

Light cavalry 14 

Trains .' 14 

Pack-horses 14 

Mules 13 

Officers' horses a trifle larger than those of their men. 
. The minister of war may authorize the minimum to be reduced |", pro- 
vided the general conformation and qualities of the animal are something 
remarkable. 

The governmout provides each officer with two horses; if an officer 
keeps the same animal 7 years, it becomes his private property; he may 
have an unfit horse exchanged by applying to the inspector-general at the 
period of the general inspection, provided the inspector decides that the 
horse is really unfit for service. 

Captains and field officers are all allowed 2 government horses, and 
forage for the regulation number above two. 

But little can be said in favor of the appearance of the French cavalry 
horses; those of the heavy cavalry are either heavy, slow, and awkward, 
or else are long-legged, and have too much daylight under them ; the 
light-cavalry horses must be better than they look, for they appear unable 
to do their work, yet they manage to get through with it. The horses at 
Saumur are generally excellent ; and those of the African chasseurs are 
exceptions to the rxile ; they are entire Arabians, and are generally very 
good. 

RATIONS OF THE MEN. 

The normal ration in the Crimea was : 

1 lb. 10} ounces of bread, or 1 lb. oi ounces of biscuit; 1.05 ounce 
of rice or beans; 2.1 ounces of the Chollet prepared vegetables; 8f 
ounces fresh moat or salt beef, or 7 ounces of salt pork ; 0,44 pint of 
wine, or 0.11 pint of brandy. 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 



349 



Coffee and sugar were issued extra, and the other parts of the ration 
were changed according to circumstances. 



lo/^y. 






jB 13" 






iiiii^ 


ipn^ 


1 


r f 


Jf 




c 

- 8? _ 






T^ 







In the cavalry the messes consist of 5 men each; each mess having its 
own cooking-utensils, which the men. carry by turns, strapped to the 
saddle. These utensils consist of the marmite, represented in elevation and 
plan by fig. A ; the gamelle, fig. B ; the bidon, shown in elevation and 
plan of top in fig. D ; the frying-pan, fig^ C ; the small gamelle, fig. E. 

The marmite is for making soup ; the bidon merely to bring water for 
oooking-purposes; the gamelle as a dish out of which they eat. Some- 
times the small gamelle is substituted for the large one; in this case each 
man has a small gamelle; fig. E represents 3 small gamelles carried 



350 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

by means of a strap ; each small gamelle has a tin cover, which is coun- 
tersunk, and has a ring as a handle : the cover is attached to the gamelle 
by a light chain. 

The frying-pan is not always issued. 

For each mess of 5, one marmite, one bidon, and one large gamelle are 
habitually provided. 

In garrison the cooking and messing are by squadron. 

It may be remarked of the French, as of most other continental rations, 
that they are insufl&cient, and ought not to be taken as guides in our own 
service. 

The prepared Chollet vegetables are extensively used in the field, and 
would be admirably adapted for issue in our long prairie marches. 

QUARTERS. 

These are sometimes in the same building with the stable, sometimes 
separate. 

In the new buildings the horse equipments are kept in the quarters, or 
else in rooms in the stable-lofts. 

The quarters are specially described in the report upon the infantry; 
it will be sufficient to state here that the arrangement and police are by 
no means such as to render them models to be followed. 

FORAGE. 

There are three kinds of rations : that in time of peace, that on an ordi- 
nary march, and that in the field in war. 

The regulation ration in time of war is as follows : 

Hay. Straw. Oats. 

Carbineers and cuirassiers.. 15.4 pounds ; 8.8 pounds ; 8.36 pounds. 

Dragoons and lancers 13.2 " 8.8 " 8.36 " 

Chasseurs and hussars 11 " 8.8 " 8.36 " 

Pack-horses 15.4 " 8.8 " 8.36 " 

Mules 11 " 8.8 " 8.36 " 

In October, 1855, the ration in the Crimea was : for French horses, 
9 pounds hay, 11 pounds barley; for African horses, 6.05 pounds hay, 10 
pounds barley. 

The largest allowance for French horses during the campaign was : 11 
pounds hay, 13.2. pounds barley. 

The allowance for African horses, given above, was regarded as too 
small. 

The regulation allowance maybe changed as follows : For hay, an equal 
weight of clover, or double the weight of straw, or half the weight of oats, 
may be substituted ; for straw, half the weight of hay, or one-fourth of 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 351 

oats, may be substituted ; for oats, double the weight of hay, four times 
the weight of straw, 50 per cent, additional weight of bran, or 8 per cent, 
of barley, may be substituted. 

If the horse has no appetite, or the forage is of indifferent quality, the 
food is sprinkled with salt water. 

When 'it is necessary to feed the horse upon grass, he should be accus- 
tomed to it by degrees, giving but a little at first, and increasing the . 
quantity as he becomes habituated to it. For the first few days the full 
or half ration of grain should be issued. 

As a last resort, the following substances may be employed for forage : 
•lyialt, which fattens but does not strengthen the horse, and which renders 
them liable to disease when they change it for other food, after having 
become accustomed to it; furze, which is very nutritious, but must be 
crushed with a hammer or in a mortar, on account of the roughness of its 
leaves; the pods of the locust; flaxseed; the roots of grass, well washed ; 
the bark of trees ; and, finally, even dry wood, cut into shavings. 

Running water is given in preference to stagnant. Bad water may 
be purified by charcoal, hydrochloric and acetic acids. If the water 
contains leeches, or other similar things, the horses must drink with the 
nose-bag on. 

The water given to the horses ought to be, as nearly as possible, of 
the same temperature as the air ; therefore, in summer it may sometimes 
be necessary to expose it to the sun, while in winter it should be given 
immediately after being drawn. 

STABLES. 

The following are the regulations and arrangements of stables : 

As far as possible, the horses of the same squadron should be placed in 
the same building, divided by partition-walls or staircases into stables of 
equal capacity. 

When windows can be arranged in both long walls, place the horses 
head to head, separating the two rows of stalls by a longitudinal partition, 
which should not be more than 1' higher than the top of the hay-rack, 
between the pillars which support the roof. 

The interior width of a stable for 1 row of stalls is 20'; for 2 rows, it 
is 40', when they are head to head; 34' 8", when they are tail to tail; 
height of ceiling, 16' 8". 

Doors should be pierced in the gable ends, and in the transverse par- 
tition-walls, to secure a longitudinal ventilation during the absence of the 
hotses. 

The doors for ordinary use should be pierced in the long walls ; width, 
6' 8"; height, at least 8' 8". 

There should be a window, with an area of about 16 square feet, for 



352 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

every 3 «^talls; the sill 10' above the floor; the sash revolving around a 
horizontal axis at the bottom, -and opening by the simplest mechanism; 
wooden shutters to be provided, if necessary. 

The recesses for the windows should extend to the floor, and be pro- 
vided with hooks or racks for suspending the horse equipments ; in these 
recesses, openings 3' 4" X 2' 4" should be made through the wall, for 
throwing out the litter. 

If necessary, ventilators may be cut through the roof in the middle of 
the passage-ways behind the stalls ; ventilators near the floor should be 
employed only in cases of absolute necessity. 

The floor ought to be of hard stones, laid on a firm foundation, and the 
joints filled with hydraulic mortar, cement, or asphalt; slope of floor of 
stall, from two to three tenths of an inch in ten inches. 

Mangers of wood, stone, or cast iron, placed on a mass of masonry, the 
front surface of which, as well as that of the manger, has a reversed slope 
of f . 

The wooden mangers are divided by partitions : those of stone or iron 
are hollowed out to the length of 2' for each horse, being solid between 
the hollows ; depth 8", width at top 1', at bottom 9".6 ; top of manger 
8' 8" above the floor. 

The hay-racks of wood, and continuous, 3' 4" high, and placed 5' 4" 
above the floor. The bars round, and capable of turning in their sockets, 
each bar 1.2" in diameter, and placed 4" apart; racks of iron may be 
authorized. 

The system of securing the horse consists of: 1st, a bar of round iron 
bent at both ends, placed up and down, parallel 
-^^^ i^-m^n) to the face of the manger, the upper end se- 

cured to the manger, the lower built into the 
masonry.; 2d, a ring sliding on this bar, and 
having a chain 2' long, with a T at the free 
end, attached to it; this T toggles to the 
halter-ring. The annexed sketch shows this 
arrangement. 

Each horse is allowed a width of 4- 10", 
never less than 4' 8", so that he may have the 
allowance of 70 cubic feet, and the space ne- 
cessary for stable-guards, utensils, &c., may be preserved. 

Stables which are less than 29' wide and 12' high can be used for two 
rows of horses only as a temporary arrangement. 

Among the French stables of all dates and varieties, one recently com- 
pleted at Saumur, and the new ones at Lyons, are justly regarded as 
models of excellence. 

Their dimensions and general arrangements are in conformity with the 




FRENCH CAVALRY. 



>cZ 



reo-ulations given above : there are, however, some details worthy of notice ; 
that at Saumur, being the most perfect, will be described in preference. 
The stalls are 4' 10" wide in the clear, and 10' long to the heel-posts ', 




they are separated by swinging planks, suspended as shown in the foregoing 
sketch. 



354 THE ARMIES OF EUR OPE. 

The floors are of cubical blocks of stone, laid in cement. A shallow 
gutter in rear of each row of stalls allows the stale to drain off. The longi- 
tudinal partition is of masonry, and about 10' high. The interior of the 
stable is plastered ; the wood-work painted oak color. In the window- 
recesses there are racks, on which to hang the horse equipments when 
saddling and unsaddling. 

The equipments are kept in rooms in the loft, where the saddles are 
placed on horizontal wooden pins, the bridles hung on hooks. The racks 
are continuous and of wood; the string-pieces, and each bar, are bound 
with narrow strips of sheet iron. 

The lower string-piece rests upon iron hooks, let into the wall; the upper 
one is held firm by iron bars, also let into the wall. 

The manger is a continuous mass of stone, with an excavation for each 
animal; these excavations are 22" long, 12" deep, and 12" wide at top. 

The building is divided into apartments, for about 20 horses each, by 
transverse partitions and stairway -halls ; there are large doors in these 
partitions. In a central hall there are water-tanks. 

The openings mentioned in the regulations for removing the litter do 
not exist. 

The halter-bars are arranged as described in the regulations ; but there 
is another ring and chain, above the manger, for use in the daytime. 

Forage for 3 or 4 days is kept in the loft, where there are also rooms 
for a few non-commissioned officers. 

In the floor of the loft there are trap-doors, so that hay and straw may 
be thrown down into the halls below. 

The oats run down from the bin, through a wooden pipe, into a large 
box on wheels. 

On the outside of the walls there are rings for attaching the horses 
while being groomed. 

At Lyons, some of the stables had quarters in the second story ; this 
is stated by many officers to be an admirable arrangement, and attended 
with no inconvenience whatever; there are a few who object to it. 

The hospital stables are always separate from the others, and have bos 
stalls. 

STABLE-DUTY. 

In each squadron, the stable-guard generally consists of a corporal and 
1 man for every 20 horses. It is their duty to feed the horses, watch 
over their safety during the night, and attend to the general police of 
the stables, being assisted by an additional detail at the hours of stable- 
call. 

About one-half the litter is usually kept down during the day. 

The oats is given in two feeds: one-half at morning stable-call, the 
rest in the evening. 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 355 

The hay is divided into three equal portions, — at morning, noon, and 
night; in the forage-magazine it is put up in trusses of 1 ration each, 
and thus received in the stable-loft; at each feed the stable-guard receive 
these trusses, and divide each one among three horses. 

If straw is fed, it is given either just before or just after the hay, — 
always in the same order. 

The horse is watered twice a day, either just before or after his grain. 

The horse is cleaned principally with a bouchon of straw and with the 
brush; the comb is used only to clean the brush. 

FIELD SERVICE. 

The allowance of transportation in the field is probably less for the 
African chasseurs than for any other corps; it will, therefore, be given 
as it was for the 4-squadron regiments in the Crimea : 

For each regiment, 1 cart for money, papers, &c. 

For the colonel 1 pack-animal. 

For 2 chiefs of squadrons 2 " " 

For 2 captains adjutant 2 " " 

For 2 surgeons 

For 2 veterinaries 

For 2 adjutants (non-commissioned) 

For 1 treasurer 

For field officers' mess 

For medicines and instruments 

For horse-medicines 

Total for staff of 4-squadron regiment 12 pack-animals. 

In each squadron — 

2 captains 2 pack-animals. 

4 lieutenants 2 " " 

Officers' mess 1 " " 

Sergeants' mess, &c .;... 1 " « 

Total for each squadron 6 pack-animals. 

Recapitulation . 

Staff 12 pack-animals. 

4 squadrons 24 " " 

For ammunition, cacolets, and subsistence 12 " " 

Total for a regiment of 4 squadrons. . .1 cart and 48 pack-animals. 



'356 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



The led horses of the squadrons are used as pack-animals, and counted 
in the number as given above ; officers are not usually permitted to pack 
their spare riding-horses. 

At the commencement of a campaign, each lieutenant of cavalry re- 
ceives $125 for the purchase of his outfit; a captain receives $250; if a 
lieutenant is promoted during the campaign, he receives the difference 
between the two sums. 

During a campaign the officers are permitted to draw rations from the 
commissary department at cost prices, paying their bills monthly. 

In the Crimea, the mass of the French troops had no other shelter 
than the tente d'abri, (shelter-tent ;) as late as October,. 1855, the African 
chasseurs, the cuirassiers, some of the other cavalry, and most of the 
infantry of the line, had only the shelter-tent; the imperial guard and 
the artillery were provided with the regulation tent. During the first 
winter, very few of the troops had more than the shelter-tent. This is 
composed of pieces of linen 5' square, having button-holes along one 
edge, and the buttons along the adjoining edge; each man carries one 
piece. 

The following sketch shows the manner of forming the shelter. The two 
sticks, each about 4' long, are stuck in the ground a little more than 5' 
apart; they are connected by a small cord, drawn tight, which is passed 
around each about Bj' above the ground; the ends of this cord are attached 




to pins, as shown in the figure. The two pieces of cloth are then but- 
toned together, and thrown over the rope between the sticks; their lower 
edges are secured to small pins : the roof of the shelter is thus complete. 
Generally 3 men unite to form one shelter ; the third man arranges his 
piece of cloth over the end of the shelter which is most exposed to the 
weather. If 5 men unite to form a shelter, it is made double the length 
shown in the sketch. 

Sometimes jointed sticks are carried to support the shelter; sometimes 
stakes are cut on the ground ; occasionally the musket is used for the 
purpose. 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 



357 



When the camp is somewhat permanent, it is usual to dig a little cellar 
and bank up the earth outside. 

In the Crimea, the cavalry usually encamped in line, with two rows of 
picket-ropes, and a line of shelter-tents in front of and behind the picket- 
ropes ; the arms and equipments between the shelters and the picket-ropes. 

The picket-rope is stretched on the ground, and the horses secured to it 
by a hobble on the right fore-foot; the hobble is of leather, and about 3' 
long; it buckles around the pastern-joint; sometimes the hobble is attached 
to a picket-pin, instead of a picket-rope. 




The foregoing sketch shows this arrangement ; it is spoken of by the 
French officers as being the best manner of securing the horses. 

Officers' horses are on the flanks of the squadron picket-ropes; those 
of the field and staff are near the tents of their owners. 

For the latter, rude stables are usually formed, by excavating to the 
depth of a couple of feet, banking up the earth around three sides, and 
then forming a roof and walls of brush. 

When time and circumstances permitted, the same was done for the 
horses of the men, — especially in the winter. It was stated that a very 
slight protection of this kind produced very marked beneficial results. In 
this connection, I would remark that companies of cavalry ought always to 
be provided with a sufficient number of tools to enable them to improvise 
some such shelter in any camp at all permanent : any thing which partially 
protects the horses from the cold winds is of great service. 

The French horses were blanketed in camp. 

The sketch on page 358 is a section of the conical tent used by the French 
staff officers ; it will be observed that it has low walls, and but one central 
pole. 

In the Crimea, the horses were fed 3 times each day; when the ration 



858 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



was large, 4 times. They were watered twice a day, — early in tlie morning 
and at about 3 p.m.; sometimes but once a day. 

They were cleaned twice a day. 

The men of the African chasseurs never go to bed without cleaning and 
rubbing down their horses, whatever may be the weather and the hour of 
night when they reach camp. 

On the march, each man carries 4 days' barley, 2 days' hay, and 4 days' 
rations for himself. 




When going into action, the men, whenever it is possible, leave their 
forage-rations, cooking-utensils, &c., in charge of a few men, or the dis- 
mounted men, retaining only cloak, arms, and ammunition ; for a division 
to effect this requires about half an hour. 

There are always a number of dismounted men to take care of baggage- 
animals, act as officers' servants, &c. 

The daily service, manner of performing outpost duty, &c., vary with 
circumstances, and are regulated in orders by the general of division. For 
some six months, during the first winter in the Crimea, the horses were kept 
saddled all day; in the fall of 1855 there was but one squadron on outpost 
duty on the Tchernaya ; the horses of the other squadrons were at their 
picket-ropes, unsaddled. Of the squadron on duty, one-half was in advance 
of the Tchernaya, saddled and bridled; it threw out vedettes and pickets; 
the other half remained in bivouac south of the stream, saddled, but 
not bridled. The vedettes were always double, and relieved every hour, 
or two hours, — according to the weather; if any thing occurred, one 
vedette rode in to inform the picket, the other remaining at his post to 
watch. 

In the African chasseurs, the men being old soldiers, less minute atten- 
tion to details was required from the officers : for instance, if it was intended 
to start at 4 in the morning, it was only necessary to announce the fact to 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 359 

the men ; the hour for rising, feeding the horses, breakfasting, &c., need 
not be specified, but the men can be trusted to be in the saddle at the hour 
appointed. 

In order to arrive at the end of a march sooner, and thus give the horses 
more time to repose, a part of the march is usually made at the trot, not 
faster than 5 miles an hour ; the horses must be brought to a walk 20 
minutes before every halt, and one hour before reaching camp. 

In crossing long and steep slopes, the men dismount; but they must not 
dismount and mount very often. 

The march ought not to be greater than from 25 to 31 miles. 

Vjery full instructions as to the manner of conducting marches, and the 
general duty in the field, are to be found in the French regulations; in 
practice, these regulations are followed as closely as circumstances will 
permit. 

The cacolets, mentioned when giving the allowance of transportation, 
are mule-litters ; each mule carries two, slung on each side of an ordinary 
pack-saddle; their frame is of jointed iron, and can be arranged either in 
the form of a chair for those who are but slightly wounded, or as a couch 
for more severe cases. They are well worthy of examination for adoption 
in our own service, in cases where commands move without wagons ; they 
will be found to be described in the report of another member of the 
commission. 

TRANSPORTATION OF MEN AND HORSES BY SEA. 

The American vessels, the Great Republic and the Monarch of the Seas, 
were fitted up at Marseilles by the French government as horse-transports, 
and present good examples of the system pursued ; the arrangements were 
the same in both. 

The Great Republic is 317' by 53' over all, 30' hold, tonnage 3,424 ; 
she has carried 497 horses and 500 men at the same time ; 240 horses on. 
each " between-decks," the rest on the spar-deck. 

A donkey engine, of 8-horse power and 12" stroke, was employed to 
hoist the horses in and out ; a load of horses taken in, or discharged, at the 
rate of 1 horse per minute. 

In one voyage, of 21 days, out of 497 animals, 9 horses and 4 mules 
were lost; most of these were sick when brought on board, and suffered 
much from the heat at Malta. 

Three additional ventilating-ports were cut on each side of each deck; 
three weeks were occupied in putting up the stalls. 

The Monarch of the Seas is of 2,860 tons burden. 

She carries 300 horses, or 950 soldiers and 28 officers ; loads and dis- 
charges, by means of a donkey engine of 8-horse power, at the same rate 
as the Great Republic. The cost of putting up the stalls was about $8,000. 

22 



1 



3(30' THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

Ou one voyage she lost about 20 horses out of 300. Out of 3,000 horses, 
carried at different times, she lost about 80 in all. 

In all the transports the government furnished the forage ; the ships 
fed the men under a contract. 

The loading was under the direction of government employes; the 
captain of the vessel regulated the extinction of lights, &c. 

It is considered best to transport horses on board of large sailing-ves- 
sels, towed by steamers, thus avoiding the heat of the engine, &c. 

The lower deck is regarded as best for the. horses. 

The horses are cleaned once a day ; fed and watered twice : these de- 
tails are regulated by the officers of the troops. 

The horse equipments, &c., are placed at the ends of the decks. 

Horse medicines were brought on board by the veterinaries on duty 
with the troops. 

When the vessel is " end on" to the wharf, a bridge of decked flat- 
boats is made from the shore, and the horses walked alongside; the slings 
are then put on, and the animals hoisted in, with the saddle and entire 
equipment on them. 

The sling used on board ship does not differ materially from that em- 
ployed in the English service; when used for hoisting in and out, a 
breeching and breast-strap are. employed. 

On the voyage the sling is used only in bad weather, when the horses 
become fatigued. 

The sea-halters are of rope, with two halter-ropes. 

The sketches on page 361 give the form and dimensions of the stalls. 

The breast and tail boards are nailed to the stanchions, and are 3" 
thick; the side-boards slip in grooves. The heads of the horses are 
towards the middle of the ship. 

The stalls are 28" wide, and 5' 10" long in the clear between the pads. 

The pads are of canv£ts, stuffed with hair; they were too thin. 

The feed-troughs of wood, and hung to hooks on the front of the 
breast-board : they are 22" long, 7" deep, 10 i" wide at top, 7z" wide at 
bottom, — all these dimensions in the clear ; the edges covered with sheet 
zinc. For each sling there are two sling bolts and rings, attached to planks 
spiked to the joists. 

To each halter-ring two halter-ropes, of adjacent horses, are attached. 
The flooring of the stalls is of inch boards, resting flat ou the deck ; long 
cleats in front and rear, as shown in the figures, and cross-cleats, parallel 
to the length of the stall, under "each side-board, are nailed to the floor; 
this flooring cannot be taken up while the horses are on board. 

The stale passes out through the scuppers as best it can. The hatches 
are always kept open. 

It will be seen that the arrangement of the slalls is such that a single 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 



361 







to 


1-1 


"1 
a 
•3 


3 




S(^ r II I" A K M I K s (1 K i: r u o r k. 

luu'sio oauuot bo vomovod tVvuu tho muKUo ot" a rv>\v wiihout tirst iviiu>viiig 
«H tl»o othoi"?* botwwn him ami oi\o oiul. vn- olso syiwiuii otV tlio bivast- 
K>»i\i : this ami tho arrauuvmont oftho tlooriuii aro i>b)ootii>iiablo. 

It will bo jitvu hoivatlor that thoso vlotoot^s avo obviatod ii» tho F.nglish 
svi!»tom, whioh will bo dosoviboil in its {Mv>{>or plaoo, auil whioh mav safolv 
K> takou as a luodol. 

AVhou horsos aiv Oiuriovl on tho spar-dook. thov avo plaooJ in nu>vablo 
box stalls. 

Tho mou sloop about tho docks, as thov host oan, in thoir o\orooatv><; 
blaukots aro somotimos giveu thorn, — t\«spooiallv if thov aro siok. Noithor 
bunks nor hammooks avo piwidod. Tlio vations of tl\o nion on boavd 
slup aiv as follows : — 

liivakfast, 0| ounoos ot'bvoad, ,\^ pint of bvandv ov vuin. ,'^, ounoo o[' 
<\>floo. j*j ounoo of sugar. 

Pinuor. tU ounotvs of bivad. -j^^, pint o( wino. oithov 8i onnoos M' salt 
bot>f or Tj^0 ouuo^^s of pork, -,\^ ouncos of i>otatvvs, poas. or boans, ov 1 
ouniv oi'rioo, ov 4|*0 ouuoos ot'ohooso. 

Suppor. tH ouuotxs ol* bread, -j'^j pint of \vino. 4 j-^ onmos of (.''hollot 
voiivtablos, ov '2 ounoos of rioo. 

VKTKKINARY SCHOOLS. 

Of thoso thoro aro throo : one at Alfort, noar Paris, one at L\ons, ono 
at Toulouso, — all under the minister of agrioulturo, oouunoroo. and pnblio 
works. At Alfort thevo aro 40 pupils, sent bv the war deputmont. who 
supply alvut 40 veteriuaries per annum for the army : as this number is 
iusuftioiont, the graduates trv>m civil life fixH^uontlv n>eeive appointments. 

Those institutions arx^ all oonduotod on tho same prineiplos : that at 
Alfort, however, is the m».»st extensive, and probably the' best ; a desorip- 
tiau of that at Lyons will gi>-o a suffioieutly aoourate idea of tho gouenil 
uaturo i.ii* all. 

At this theiv aro 150 pupils, adiuittod botwoon tho ages of 17 and '2c>, 
and paying §S0 j)or annum. 

They aro r<.Hiuiivd to jkhss a preliminary examination, at which they 
must show that they oan forgo a shoo in two heats, that they understand 
the FrvHioh grammar, and oan write, know arithmotio and the elements 
of gt>ometry. and have a i;vueral knowledge of tho gvogr^phy of Kurojv, 
as well as a special a^\juaiutanw with that of France. 

The pupils aro divid^Ki into 4 classes, tho course being of four years. 
For tho two junior classes tho course is purely thoi^rotical. and they are 
rtH|uirx\l to study S hours a day ; in the two senior classes it is partly 
pxactical, their prosonce in tho study-ivoms being revjuire^i but 4 hours 
per day. 

The members of tho two senior classes have. each, one ov more sick 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 363 

horses assigned to their care, to which they administer the requisite 
medical treatHient, under the supervision and according Uj the prescrip- 
tions of the professors. There is a clinique, or disjjensary, whither sick 
horses are brought every day, the professors prescribing and making 
remarks upon the cases; each pupil has a book in which he records the 
prescriptions, remarks, and whole hist^^ry of the cases; he retains this 
book when he leaves the school. 

During the whole course the pupils are required to make shoes and to 
shoe horses. 

The academic staflP is as follows : 

1. The director, who is also professor of anatomy and external diseases. 

2. A professor of external pathology, surgery, and shoeing. 

3. A professor of internal pathology, and botany. 

4. A professor of hygiene, physiology, and sanitary police. 

5. A professor of physics, chemistry, and pharmacy. 
In addition there are three assistant professors. 

The pupils reside in the establishment, and are kept under very strict 
discipline. When they pass t^ieir final examination they receive a 
regular diploma as veterinary physicians. 

In the practice at this institution, the glanders is regarded as incurable, 
and the fleam is preferred to the spring lancet. 

The boxes for very sick or large horses are 11' 4" wide, 14' 9" long, 
with a passage-way of 5' in rear, and are a?jout 15' high ; in front of the 
stables there is an iron shed 10' 6" wide. 

The mangers are of stone; racks, of wood; floor--, of hard brick, laid 
on the long edge; the divisions between the stalls are solid, and swing on 
pivots, so a» to yield to the kick of the animal. 

There are stables for cows; kennels for dogs, cats, <kc. 

There are also dissecting-rooms, — animals being purchased and killed 
for the purpose. 

The library has a reading-room attached, and contains general scientific 
works, as well as those relating especially to the veterinary art. 

The collection of instruments for experiments in natural philosophy is 
fair. 

There is a small anatomical museum, in which are found nearly all the 
admirable models made by Dr. Augoux ; these represent the teeth, bones, 
intestines, — in fact, all parts, — of the horse, as well as complete models 
showing the whole external and internal structure of the animal. They 
are msida of a material not unlike papier-mach*?, and are durable and 
accurate. 

These models are in general use throughout Europe, and are regarded 
as indi-pensable in a veterinary school. 

Specimens were purchased by the commission ; and I would urgently 



364 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

recommend that complete sets be procured for the military academy, the 
cavalry depot, and for general use in the service. 

In the botanical garden are found specimens of all proper and noxious 
aliments for the horse, -medicinal plants, &c. 

The forges in the shoeing-shop are of iron, and well arranged ; the tools 
present nothing peculiar. 

The method of cold-shoeing is pursued here, as is universally the case 
in the French government establishments. This process will be fully 
explained when describing the farrier school at Saumur. 

CAVALRY SCHOOL AT SAUMUR. 

This is the most perfect and extensive institution of the kind in 
Europe, — perhaps the only one really deserving the title, the others being 
more properly mere schools of equitation. 

It is situated on the Loire, in the department of the Maine and Loire, 
a region in which forage abounds, and where the climate is such that 
exercises in the open air are seldom interrupted. 

The organization and purposes of the school cannot be better described 
than by giving extracts from the "Decree of Reorganization," dated 
October, 1853 : 

" The purpose of the cavalry school is to form instructors, intended to 
diffuse through the corps a uniform system of instruction in. every thing 
relating to the principles of equitation, and other branches of knowledge 
appropriate to the cavalry arm. 

TITLE I. 

OBJECT OP THE SCHOOL AND DIVISION OP INSTRUCTION. 

Article 1. The instruction at the cavalry school is entirely military, 
and is based upon the laws and regulations in force with regard to the 
mounted troops. It includes — 

1st. The regulations for interior service. 

2d. The cavalry tactics. * 

3d. The regulations for garrison service. 

4th. The regulations for field service applied, as far as possible, on the 
ground, especially with regard to reconnoissances. 

5th. A military and didactic course of equitation, comprising all the 
theoretical and practical knowledge required for the proper and useful 
employment of the horse, his breaking, application to the purposes of 
war, and various civil exercises. 

6th. A course of hippology, having for its object practical instruction, 
by means of the model breeding-stud attached to the school, in the prin- 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 365 

ciples which should serve as rules in crossing breeds and in raising colts, 
to explain the phases of dentition, to point out the conformation of the 
colt which indicates that he will become a good and solid horse, the 
method to be pursued to bring the colt under subjection without resist- 
ance, and, finally, to familiarize the officers and pupils with all the know- 
ledge indispensable to an officer charged with the purchase and care of 
remount horses. This course will also include notions concerning the 
horse equipment, which will be derived from an examination of the saddle- 
factory connected with the school. 

7th. Vaulting, fencing, and swimming. 

Article 2. The number of horses is fixed by the minister of war, 
according to the wants of the service; the number of troop-horses is 
fixed by table A, appended to this decree. 

The number of young horses, for breaking, is fixed at 100 as a mini- 
mum. These last horses, as soon as their education is complete, are sold 
or given, according to the orders of the minister of war, to those officers 
who need a remount, — in preference, to officers of the general stafi" and 
staff corps, those of the artillery, and mounted officers of infantry. 

These officers may also select from among the other horses of the 
school, with the approval of the commandant of the school. 

Article 3. The pupils at the school are : 

1st. Officers for instruction. 

2d. Sergeants for instruction. 

3d. Corporals for instruction. 

Article 4. The full number of the divfsions of officers, sergeants, and 
corporals for instruction is as follows : 

Officers for instruction, 2 divisions (effective) 100 

Sergeants " 1 " '■' 40 

Corporals " 4 " " 240 

Article 5. The pupils are sent to the school by order of the minister 
of war. They continue to be counted in their corps, from which they 
are considered detached during their stay at the school. They receive 
additional pay. 

TITLE II. 

course of instruction. 

Article 6. The courses of instruction are divided into 2 years. 

Upon their admission, the pupils take up the first year's course ; when 
they have passed the examination at the close of that year, they enter upon 
the course of the 2d and final year. 

Article 7. In case of interruption from sickness, pupils may repeat 
one year's course. No one can remain more than 3 years at the school. 



366 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

Article 8. A council of instruction is charged with the direction of 
the studies. They propose useful changes, and direct the progress of the 
studies. They are charged with the examinations. 

TITLE III. 

THE DIVISIONS FOR INSTRUCTION. 

Section 1. 

Officers and sergeants for instniction. 

Article 9. The officers for instruction are selected from the regiments 
of cavalry and artillery, as well as from the squadrons of the trains of the 
parks and military equipages. Every year the inspectors-general desig- 
nate the lieutenants and sub-lieutenants who can profitably follow the 
course at the school. The lieutenants selected must not be more than 36 
years of age, the sub-lieutenants not more than 34. 

The sub-lieutenants, who are graduates of the special military school, 
must have* served at least 2 years with their- regiments before being sent 
to the cavalry school. 

Article 10. The sergeants for instruction are selected from the artil- 
lery. Every two years the inspector-general designates sei-geants of the 
regiments of artillery and the squadrons of the park-trains to be detached 
from their corps as sergeants for instruction. 

Article 11. The officers and sergeants sent to the school for in- 
struction take their horses with them, and use them in the military exer- 
cises. 

ArticJjE 12. Those who, after six months' trial at the school, are 
found to be deficient in the necessary qualities, are sent back to their 
regiments. 
■ Article 13. Upon the recommendation of the inspector-general of 
the school, the officers serving there as pupils compete for promotion by 
choice with the officers of the corps from which they are detached. 

Article 14. The cavalry lieutenant for instruction who graduates first 
in his class is presented for the first vacancy as captain instructor that 
occurs in the cavalry, provided he has the seniority in his grade demanded 
by the law. 

The cavalry lieutenant who graduates second obtains, under the same 
conditions, the 2d vacancy of captain instructor, provided the division to 
which he belonged consisted of more than 30 members. The sub-lieu- 
tenant for instruction who graduates first of his grade, provided he is not 
lower than 10th in the general classification of the officers of both grades, 
is presented for promotion to the first vacant lieutenancy that occurs in 
his regiment. 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 867 

Article 15. Those who remain 3 years at the school are not entitled 
to the benefits of the preceding article. 

Section 2. 
Corporals for instruction. 

Article 16. They are designated every year, by the inspectors-gene- 
ral, in the regiments of cavalry and the squadrons of militsrry equipages, 
from among those who have the greatest aptness for equitation, and are 
most deserving on account of their conduct, instruction, zeal, and intelli- 
gence; those who are recommended for promotion in their corps are 
selected in preference. 

They must not be more than 25 years old. 

They are sent to the school, by order of the minister of war, on the 1st 
of April of each year. 

They remain connected with their corps, from which they are regarded 
as detached, and leave their horses there. 

Article 17. The corporals compose 2 squadrons, commanded by cap- 
tains on the staff of the school, who have officers for instruction under 
their orders. 

Article 18. The corporals for instruction, although acting in the 
ranks, continue to wear the distinctive marks of their grade, and receive 
the pay of corporals of cuirassiers. 

Article 19. Those corporals who, after spending 6 months at the 
school, do not evince the necessary qualifications, are sent back to their 
regiments. 

Article 20. When they have passed their final examination, the cor- 
porals for instruction are promoted to be sergeants, vacancies having been 
reserved for them in their own regiments, to which they consequently 
return. 

Those who at the examination at the close of the first year are in the 
highest third part of their class, and have distinguished themselves by 
their zeal and good conduct, may be at once promoted to be sergeants in 
their regiments, and perform the duties of that grade in the squadrons of 
the school ; they receive the pay and wear the distinctive marks of their 
new grade. 

Those corporals whose final examination is not satisfactory will be sent 
back to their regiments as corporals, unless they are especially authorized 
to spend an additional six months, or a year, at the school. 

Article 21. The corporals who graduate among the first ten of their 
class are placed on the list of sergeants for promotion as sub-lieutenants 
as soon as they have completed the two years' service as sergeants required 
by law. 



368 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

TITLE IV. 

STAFF OF THE SCHOOL. 

Section 1. 

Composition of the staff. 

Article 22. The staff of the school is composed as follows : 

1 general officer, as commandant. 

1 colonel, as 2d commandant. 

1 lieutenant-colonel. 

1 chief of squadrons. 

1 major. 

' of whom 3 command the squadrons. 

2 perform the duty of captain adjutant. 

2 in charge of the instruction of the officers. 

10 captains, instructors,^ ^ ''' ^^''^^S^ ^^ ^^^ ^P^^i^^^ ««"^^« «f ^^^ ^^^- 

geants. 

1 as assistant to the chief riding-master in the 
school for breaking young horses. 

1 supernumerary to supply vacancies. 
1 captain, treasurer. 
1 captain of clothing. 

1 director of the saddlery, either a captain or lieutenant. 
1 assistant treasurer, either a lieutenant or sub-lieutenant. 
1 standard-bearer, either a lieutenant or sub-lieutenant. 
1 veterinary of the 1st or 2d class. 
1 assistant veterinary of the 1st or 2d class. 

C 3 for duty with the squadrons. 

4 non-commissioned adjutants,^ 1 wagon-master, also in charge ot 

I library. 

C 3 for duty with the squadrons. 

5 first sergeants, -l 1 master farrier. 

1 1 master saddler. 
13 sergeants, one of whom is fencing-master. 
4 quartermaster-sergeants, one of whom is attached to the saddlery. 

1 corporal, trumpeter. 

2 corporals, farriers. 

2 corporals, saddlers. 

3 corporals, provosts. 

Article 23. The employes in the riding-halls, academy, and model 
stud, are military or civil; their rank and precedence are as follows: 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 369 

1 cliief riding-master, ranks as chief of squadrons. 
5 riding-masters, who rank as captains ; one of these may be the di- 
rector of the stud, and professor of hippology. 

3 assistant riding-masters, who rank as lieutenants or sub-lieutenants. 
1 master of the riding-halls, ranks as non-commissioned adjutant. 

4 assistant masters of the riding-halls, 1 of whom ranks as first sergeant, 

the others as sergeants. 

The direction of the breeding-stud, and the course of hippology, may 
be intrusted to a civil or military professor other than a riding-master, or 
to a military veterinary. 

Article 24. The medical staff is as follows : 

1 chief surgeon. 

1 surgeon of the 1st or 2d class. 

1 assistant surgeon of the 1st or 2d class. 

1 chief apothecary, or assistant apothecary. 

1 hospital intendant. 

3 principal hospital attendants. 

7 hospital attendants. 

Article 25. There are attached to the school — 

1 sergeant, as master armorer. 

1 sergeant, as master saddler. 

1 sergeant, as master tailor. 

1 sergeant, as master boot-maker. 

Article 26. The officers composing the staff are authorized to have the 
number of horses allowed their grade, with the exception of the intend- 
ants and medical officers, who are only authorized to have their govern- 
ment horses. 

Article 27. Upon the recommendation of the council of adminis- 
tration, the minister of war determines the number and duties of the 
administrative employes attached to the school ; also the number of sub- 
ordinate agents." 

For additional information I would refer to the copy of the decree of 
reorganization accompanying this report. 

The captains-instructor of the cavalry regiments, and the instructors of 
equitation in the artillery regiments, are mostly selected from the gra- 
duates of this institution. 

In addition to the subjects mentioned in the decree, the non-commissioned 
officers are instructed in the theory of administration and accountability. 

The text-books are as follows : The Hippology of M. St. Ange ; the 
. Equitation of M. d'Aure ; the Tactics and Regulations. 

The recitations are by sections of about 30 in each. 

In reciting upon the general principles of tactics, equitation, hippology, 



;570 



T II E A 11 M 1 1: S 1-' E IT K P E. 



&i'., tlio nmiuior is as at our Military Aoatloiuj ; when reciting upon the 
movements in tactics, all tlio coumiands ami explanations of the instructor 
to the troops are ropcatoil " verbatim et literatim," and in the tone and 
piteh of voice used in the field. 

Perfect uniformity of tone and manner is required, and thus obtained; 
the object of reciting in this manner is to teach the pupils the proper 
tone and pitch of voice, to accustom them to hear their own voices, and 
to enable them to repeat the text literally at this piteh of voice, without 
liesitation or mistake. 

The course of hippology includes the structure of the horse, the cir- 
culation of the blood, organs of respiration, &C., food, working-powers, 
action, breeds, manner of taking care of him, ordinary ailments and 
remedies, shoeing, lameness, saddling, sore backs, sanitary police, &c.,but 
does not comprise a complete veterinary course. 

The Augoux models are employed, in preference, lor demonstrations, 
and are considered invahwible. 

The officers on the stall" of the school, and those for instruction, lodge 
in the town ; the non-commissioned officers are quartered in the barrack. 
The hospital is for both officers and non-commissioned officers. 
In the kitchens, the Choumara marmites are used. 
The stables have already been described. 

In accordance with the system now adopted in France, the prison con- 
sists of small cells, opening upon a corridor which communicates with the 
guard-room ; the system of solitary confinement is resorted to as the only 
one of any avail. Each prisoner has a bunk, mattress, pillow, and blanket, 
belonging to the prison. At Saumur tlie prisoners are obliged to have some 
of their text-books with them. 

Forage-magazine. — The following sketch represents a section of the 
forage-mag-azine ; there is a staircase at each end. The oats are kept 

loose on the floor, in a mass 
about o' deep; a winnowing- 
nuichiue is provided for clean- 
ing it before issue. 

The hay is purchased in 
trusses of about 15 lbs. each, 
and is put up, at the magazine, 
in trusses of a ration each, 
by hired men. The straw is 
stacked in piles about 40' 
high, in the open air; a wall 
surrounds the whole establishment. Four months' supply is usually kept 
on hand. The purchase and iss\ie are in the hands of an officer of the 
intendance. 




FRENCH CAVALRY. 371 

Riding-halh. — There are three of these, the largest being 280' long, 
105' wide, and 25' high. The roof-truss of wood, supported by wooden 
arches, which extend nearly to the floor. 

The galleries in the middle of the long sides, the entrance-doors at 
the ends. There is no wainscot, nor are the corners rounded off. The 
floor is of sand and tan. 

The large riding-hall is stated to be too large for the mere riding-drill, 
and is sufficient for instruction in the first two articles of the platoon 
drill ; it was also stated that it would be desirable to h'ave it large enough 
for all the lessons of the platoon drill. The second riding-hall is about 
216' X 60', and is of a good size for the riding-drill. The best shape 
for a riding-hall is said to be, — the width one-third of the length. Near 
the large riding-hall there is a target, placed against a brick wall. They 
practise at this with pistol, carbine, and musket; at first on foot, after- 
wards on horseback. 

The carbine is said to be worthless, because it is inaccurate and is apt 
to burn the horse's ears. No very satisfactory results have been obtained 
with the use of the musket on horseback. 

Hurdles about 22 feet high are placed near the target; they are made 
of very flexible withes, in order not to trip the horse if he strikes. 

The practical exercises consist of: The ordinary riding-hall drill, 
including vaulting, the " kickers," &c. ; the carri^re, or out-door riding 
at speed, over hurdles, ditches, &c.; cutting at heads; target-practice; 
fencing; swimming; the usual military drills; skeleton squadron and 
regimental drills ; rides in the country ; finally, in the summer, frequent 
" carrousels" or tilts are held. 

The English saddle and bridle are much used by the officers. The 
saddle for the " kickers" has a high pommel and cantle, and no stirrups. 

The Baucher system was fully tried at Saumur, and I was informed that 
it proved to be inapplicable to the general service. Some few persons, 
exceptions to the general rule, did wonders with it; but it generally did 
harm, and is regarded as a very dangerous system in the hands of most 
officers and men ; it is not at all in use at Saumur, or anywhere else in 
the French service. I will here take occasion to repeat that I took 
especial pains to make inquiries, in relation to the Baucher system, of the 
cavalry officers of all the countries we visited, and that the reply was 
uniformly the same: that is, that certain parts of the system (those 
relating to obtaining command of the muscles of the head and neck) 
were good, and could be applied with advantage by individual officers to 
their own horses, but that the system would never answer for general 
introduction in the service. 

In addition to what is stated in the decree of reorganization, it should 
be said that the non-commissioned officers sent to the school must have 



372' THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

served as sueli at least one year; and that those who attend the school 
as non-commissioned officers frequently return as officers for instruction, 
and again in a higher grade on the staff of the school. The officer now 
second in command has been at the school in every grade down to that 
of lieutenant, inclusive. Officers transferred from the infantry to the 
cavalry are generally sent to this school for a short time at least. 

The veterinary surgeons of the lowest grade are sent here upon their 
first appointment to receive instruction in eqjiitation, to profit by the 
study of the model stud, and to learn the routine of their duties with 
the regiments; they form a separate class, under the direction of the 
stud. In the Mo^el Stud (Haras des Etudes) the number of animals 
varies. There are usually two stallions and about twenty mares, in addi- 
tion to those selected from time to time from among the riding-animals. 
At the time of my visit one of the stallions was a superb Arab ; among 
the mares were Arabs, English, Norman, &c. Each animal has a box 
about 15' square. 

The object of this establishment is explained in the " decree." At- 
tached to it is a botanical garden, more especially for useful and noxious 
grasses and plants. 

The horses of the school are divided into two sets, — one for the ridinjr- 
hall, the other for military drills ; there are about 240 of the former and 
600 of the latter. The former are groomed by hired men, the others by 
soldiers of the remount companies, who do not belong to any regiment. 

Each man has four horses to take care of, and has nothing else to do. 
The horses at the school have a somcAvhat larger allowance of forage than 
in the regiments, and are far better animals than the majority in the 
service. 

SCHOOL FOR BREAKING YOUNG HORSES. 

The object of this establishment is explained in the decree. The best 
horses purchased at the remount depots are selected for the officers, and 
sent to this place to be trained. 

A school for trumpeters existed at Saumur prior to the war; soon after 
the commencement of the war it was broken up, — to the regret of all the 
officers. 

SCHOOL OF FARRIERS. 

This is attached to the cavalry school, and is under the direction of 
the commandant. Private soldiers who have served at least six months 
with their regiments, and are blacksmiths or horseshoers by trade, com- 
pose this school. There are usually two men from each mounted regiment; 
during the war the number was reduced to one from each regiment. 
The course lasts two years. It comprises: reading, writing, arithmetic, 
equitation, the anatomy of the horse, thorough instruction as to all 
diseases, injuries, and deformities of the foot, something of the veterinary 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 373 

art ia general, the selection of metals, making shoes, nails, tools, &c., 
shoeing horses. 

The printed work on farriery ^Cours de Marechalerie, ii Saumur) gives 
the course as taught. 

This establishment has a large shoeing shop and yard, with some 12 or 
15 forges, a recitation-room, museum, and store-rooms. In the recitation- 
room there are skeletons of hoi'ses, men, &c., as well as some admirable 
specimens of natural preparations in comparative anatomy, a complete 
collection of shoeing-tools, specimens of many kinds of shoes, &c. 

In a recitation of the lowest section I heard a very good explanation 
of the skeleton, muscles, foot, process of shoeing, use of the " perpen- 
diculars," &c., from different pupils. 

This school has been in existence since 1826, and has produced most 
satisfactory results. Since that year the census returns have shown, it is 
stated, a diminution of 40 per cent, in the number of lame horses in 
France, — a result attributed to the good instruction spread through the 
country by means of this school ; for the pupils, upon leaving the service, 
generally establish themselves as farriers in their native villages. 

All the horses of the school are shod here ; also those of the inhabit- 
ants of the town and its vicinity ; the money thus earned pays the 
expenses of the school. ' 

The shoes are made altogether by hand, and are rather rough. 

For small feet, 6 nails are used ; for those of medium size, 7 3 for large 
feet, such as those of cuirassier horses, 8. 

As the regulations require the method of cold-shoeing to be used in 
the French army, that alone is used here, and is as follows : 

The old shoe is removed, and the foot prepared to receive the new 
shoe. An exact impression of the foot is then taken on a sheet of paper, 
which is laid against the sole of the foot, and pressed against the edge of 
the foot by the hand. 

The podometer (which is either a thin, flexible bar of lead, or a chain 
of short, stiff, bar links) is now employed; this is bent to the exact 
shape of the impression on the paper, and serves as a guide and measure 
in forging the shoe. 

This impression is taken once for all, for each horse. 

In the regiments, each farrier has a register, at the head of each page 
of which are inscribed the name and number of a horse; below are traced 
the impressions of his fore and hind feet, which can always be reproduced 
by means of the podometer, or a paper form. Any necessary remarks, as 
to peculiarities of the horse's foot, and directions for shoeing him, are 
inscribed by the veterinary. A note is made in the register every time 
the horse is shod. 

No shoe should remain on more than from 30 to 40 days. 



374 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



By means of this register the farrier prepares, at his leisure, four shoes 
for each horse, which number should always be on hand; the veterinary 
inspects them, sees the nail-holes punched, and has them marked with 
the number of the horse. 

On the march, every man must be provided with 4 shoes thus fitted, 
also with two sets of nails. 

The horses are not taken to the forge to be shod, but the operation is 
performe,d wherever they happen to be. 




In garrison, they leave the stable only long enough to have the old 
shoe removed, the hoof trimmed, and the new shoe nailed on. 

At Saumur, the registers belong to the school, and not to the farriers ; 
the horses, too, are generally taken to the shop to be shod. 

Another register is kept here, in which is recorded the work done 
every day, giving the names of the horses, or of their owners, the number 
of shoes put on, and on what foot, also the names of the men doing the 
work, so that they may be held responsible for any work badly done. 

I observed at this school an arrangement for curing contracted heels; 



FRENCH CAVALRY. 375 

it is said that by means of it very bad cases are permauently cured in a 
few months. 

The sketches on page 374 show the arrangement. 

The instrument represented by figs. 1 and 2 is applied to the bars of 
the hoof; turning the screw, the piece B recedes from A, and thus opens 
the heel; a shoe, arranged with clips, as shown in the sketch, is then 
put on, and the clips retain the bars in their new position. 

The hoof is opened a very little at each shoeing ; it is necessary to be 
very careful in the application, and not to open the heels too much at 
once, — from ji^ to y^^ of an inch at a time. It is sometimes necessary 
to rasp down the hoof and soak it in oil, to render it more pliable. 

I was informed that perfect success attends this operation : in fact, 
they showed me the impressions of hoofs, badly contracted originally, 
taken at different times during the process, and then one of the horses 
with heels apparently in good condition, and without clips on the shoes. 

It ought, however, to be stated that a similar process is referred to 
by Youatt, (page 308, Skinner's edition,) and that his conclusions are 
entirely against the efficiency of any such process. I give the thing for 
what it may be worth. 

Since I visited Saumur unaccompanied by the other members of the 
commission, I feel that it would be improper to close my notes upon the 
school without calling the attention of the Secretary of War to the ex- 
treme courtesy and kindness I met with on the part of all the officers of 
the school. By General de Rochefort, the commandant, and Colonel 
Schmidt, the 2d commandant, I was placed under great obligations by 
their personal attentions, and the patient kindness with which they — 
especially the latter — accompanied me through the different parts of the 
establishment, and laid open all things for my examination. 

List of works, hy French aiitlwrs, or translated into French, of especial 
value to cavalry officers. 
Bugeaud ; Instructions Pratiques, pour les Troupes en Campagne. 
Bismank; Tactique de la Cavalerie, (trad, par Schauenberg.) 
Brack; Avant-Postes de Cavalerie Leg^re. 
Cours d'Equitation Militaire de I'Ecole de Saumur. 
Cours de Marechalerie de I'Ecole de Saumur. 
Cours d'Hippologie — par St. Ange. 

Decker; Tactique des Trois Armes, (trad, par de Braek.) 
Decker ; Traite de la Petite Guerre. 

Frederic II (le Grand) ; Instructions aux Troupes Legeres, &c. 
Jacquinot de Presle; Cours d'Art et d'Histoire Militaire. 
La lloche Aymon; Manuel de Cavalerie Legere en Campagne. 

Maurice de Saxe ; Mes Reveries, ou Memoires sur 1' Art de Guerre. 

23 



376 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

Memorial des Officiers d'lnfanterie et de Cavalerie. 

Muller; Theorie sur rEscrime h, Cheval. 

Ordonnance sur le Service Int^rieur des Troupes a Cheval. 
" " " des Armees en Campagne. 

" " " de Cavalerie en Campagne. 

" " " des Places — pour la Cavalerie. 

Schauenberg ; De I'Emploi de la Cavalerie h la Guerre. 

Des Principes qui servent de Base k I'Instruction etc. de la Cavalerie 
— par M. F. d'Ald^guier. 

The following are standard works on the veterinary art : 

Dictionnaire de Medecine, de Chirurgie, et d'Hygifene V^t^rinaire, 
par M. Huetel d'Arboval, 6 volumes. 

Traite de Medecine V^t^rinaire Pratique — par L. V. Delwast, 3 
volumes. 

Nouveau Dictionnaire Pratique de Medecine, de Chirurgie, et d'Hy- 
gifene Veterinaire, par MM. Bouley et Reynal. 

Recueil de M^moires et d'Observations sur I'Hygi^ne et la Medecine 
Veterinaire Militaire; public par ordre du Ministre de la Guerre, 6 volumes. 

Dictionnaire d'Hippiatrique et d'Equitation ; par Cardini, 2 volumes. 

Much valuable and interesting information as to the history of the 
horses and haras in France is to be found in a published report, entitled 
Conseil Sup<5rieur des Haras, Rapport sur les Travaux de la Session de 
1850, fait par M. le G^n^ral de la Morici^re. 



ENGLISH CAVALRY. 377 



ENGLISH CAVALRY. 



The Englisli regular cavalry consists of: 

regiments of liousehold troops — cuirassiers; 
7 regiments of heavy dragoon guards; 

3 regiments of heavy dragoons of the line; 

4 regiments of light dragoons of the line; 

5 regiments of hussars; 

•4 regiments of lancers; « 

1 regiment of Cape mounted riflemen. 

The regiment of mounted riflemen has 12 troops; the other regiments 
have 6 or 8 troops each, formed, respectively, into 3 or 4 squadrons. 

The troop is the unit of interior service; the squadron is that of tactics. 

The usual strength of a troop of the guards is : 1 captain, 1 lieutenant, 
1 cornet, 5 sergeants, 1 trumpeter, 1 farrier, and 42 corporals and privates; 
in other regiments, serving at home, the number of corporals and privates 
is increased to 58; regiments serving in India, and similar stations, have 
1 additional lieutenant and 70 corporals and privates. 

The regimental stafi" consists of: 1 colonel, 1 lieutenant-colonel, 1 major, 
1 paymaster, 1 adjutant, 1 quartermaster, 1 surgeon, 1 assistant surgeon, 
1 veterinary surgeon, 1 sergeant major, 1 chief trumpeter, 1 armorer, 1 
chief saddler, 1 schoolmaster sergeant, 1 hospital sergeant, 1 regimental 
clerk, 1 paymaster's clerk. 

Some regiments have 2 lieutenant-colonels and 2 majors. 

TACTICS AND INSTRUCTION. 

The squadron is composed of two troops, and is divided into 4 divisions. 
It is formed in two ranks, half a horse's length (4') apart; the files have 
intervals of 6" from knee to knee. 

The squadron-intervals are equal to the front of a division ; those be- 
tween regiments are the same, allowing, in the order of parade, the addi- 
tional space necessary for the band and staff. 

In the squadron the officers, &c., are posted as follows : 

The commander of the squadron, (who is the senior captain of troop, 
and is called "squadron-leader,") one-half a horse's length in front of the 



878 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

centre of the squadron; the commandants of the troops, (called "troop- 
leaders/") at the same distance in front of the centres of the troops; the 
4th officer is posted, as a file-closer, (he is called "squadron serrefile,") 
one-half a horse's length in rear of the centre of the squadron ; the 5th and 
6th officers, (called "troop serrefiles,") at the same distance behind the 
centres of the troops; one sergeant, the standard-bearer, is in the front 
rank between the troops; 8 sergeants are on the flanks of the divisions, 
in the front rank, all covered by corporals or old soldiers; the 10th 
sergeant, as squadron-marker, is in the rank of file-closers, one horse's 
length on the right of the squadron serrefile; the trumpeters are in the 
rank of file-closers, behind the second files from the flanks of the squadron ; 
supernumerary officers and sergeants and the farriers are distributed in the 
rank of file-closers. 

The formations are by single file, by files, by sections of threes, and by 
threes, as in the Russian system. 

The front of column is increased or diminished as in our own tactics. 

The English tactics being easily obtained, and copies of it being in the 
possession of the War Department, it is deemed unnecessary to give 
extracts from it. 

Much of the preliminary instruction is worthy of consideration : it is 
very concise; the commands are generally short, and it should by no 
means be passed over by officers engaged in the revision of our own 
tactics. 

HORSE EQUIPMENTS, ETC. 

The saddle has a lower cantle and pommel than our Grimsley saddle ; 
it is covered with leather. 

The snaffle-bit is attached to the halter-headstall by a chain and T ; 
the curb has a separate headstall, which, on the march, is sometimes taken 
ofi" and hung on the carbine-stock; the halter-shank is a chain, and is 
worn in the field. 

No schabraque is worn; the pouches, valise, &c., present nothing 
peculiar. 

There is a difi*erence between the saddles for the heavy and light 
cavalry. 

The cavalry are armed with the sabre, carbine, and pistol, with the 
exception of the lancers, who have two pistols and a lance in lieu of the 
carbine. 

The sabre is long, and has a steel guard ; it is formed rather for cutting 
than for thrusting. 

Large numbers of the Drane & Adams' revolvers were being made at 
Li^ge for the English cavalry ; none had been issued in the Crimea. 

The Cape mounted riflemen have a sabre, pistol, and a carbine with a 
double barrel. 



ENGLISH CAVALRY. 379 

The carbine is carried in a boot, and has also a sling. 

The cartridge-box is suspended from a shoulder-belt. 

The heavy cavalry wear helmets; the light dragoons, shakos; the 
hussars, fur cylindrical hats, or shakos ; the lancers, the czapka. 

The cuirassiers have both breast and back plate. 

The frock-coat was in course of adoption, but had been issued in the 
Crimea to only a few regiments. 

In the Crimea, the cavalry had their full dress. 

The horses of the English cavalry are large and excellent; for the 
heavy cavalry they leave nothing to be desired. It may be a question 
whether they have light cavalry, in the true sense of the term, except, 
perhaps, some of the regiments who have been serving in India and are 
mounted on Indian horses; for the men and horses of the light cavalry 
are scarcely to be distinguished from those of the heavy, and it may be 
doubted whether they would stand the severe work, exposure, and short 
rations which usually fall to the lot of light cavalry in campaign, as well 
as the less imposing but lighter and more active material of the light 
cavalry of other nations. 

The horses are usually purchased for each regiment. 

The animals in the Crimea in the fall of 1855 were mostly, I believe, 
remount horses, sent out during the spring and summer ; they were gene- 
rally excellent animals, of great power and weight, but, although in fair 
effective condition, they were hardly in the state that might have been 
expected considering the small amount of work they were required to 
perform. They were encamped upon broken ground, where but little 
regularity could be perceived in their arrangement. 

The men were under canvas, the horses generally blanketed at the 
picket-ropes ; in some few cases, exceptions to the rule, rough stables had 
been constructed. 

The picket-ropes were about 2' from the ground, and fastened to stakes 
some 20' apart; the horses secured to them by the halter chain or rope. 

The camp-equipage, cooking-utensils, &c., do not differ materially from 
those of the infantry, which are described in their appropriate place. 

TRANSPORTATION BY SEA. 

The Himalaya was regarded as the most perfect horse-transport; the 
following description is based upon notes taken during a visit to that 
vessel in the harbor of Balaklava : 

She is an iron screw-ship of 3,000 tons and 700-horse power, and can 
can-y 380 horses, as follows : on the spar-deck 200, main deck 130, orlop- 
deck 50 ; the corresponding number of troops can be carried at the same 
time. 

The Himalaya was purchased by the government, and commanded by 



J80 



THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



Fig. 4. 



Captain Priest, R.N. To the courtesy of that very intelligent officer we 
are indebted for the details contained herein. 

Fig. 1 (page 381) is a section through the side-boards of a stall 

Fig. 2, a longitudinal section along the axis. 

Fig. 3 is the plan of stall. 

A represents the halter-rings. 

B, the hook to which the sea-halter is hung when not in use. 

C and E, projected buttons for securing the sling-ropes shown in fig. 5. 

D, sling-bolt, for sling as shown in fig. 4. 

F, hook to which the land-halter is hung. 

Fig. 4 represents the canvas sling used on the Himalaya. 
Fig. 5 represents the sling as recommended by Captain Priest, 
and which he intended to adopt. 

The tail-board, as shown in the sketch, is permanently 
attached to the rear posts, and extends to the floor; it ia 
padded nearly to the bottom : it was intended to replace this 
by a board of the same width as the side-boards, and rounded 
off at top by a spar, 4^/' in diameter. 

The breast and side boards all slip in grooves. 
The side-boards are padded on both sides ; the breast-board 
on top and towards the horse. 

The material used is felt, or raw hide, (the latter objec- 
tionable on account of the odor,) stuff"ed with cow's hair 
wherever the animal can gnaw it, with straw in other parts; 
the pads were from 2" to 3" thick. 

The feed-trough is of wood, the edges bound with sheet 
iron or zinc, and attached to the head-board by two hooks. 

The feed-troughs, head-boards, and stalls are whitewashed 
and numbered. 

The floor of the stalls is raised above the deck on buttons, 
and is divided into separate platforms for every two stalls, 
so that it can easily be raised to clean the deck beneath; 4 
strong buttons are nailed across, to give the animals a foot- 
hold. 

In front of each head-post there is a halter-ring. 
The sea-halter is made of double canvas, 2" wide, and has 
two ropes, so that by fastening one to each post the animal's 
head may be kept still and he cannot interfere with his 
neighbor. 
The slings are of canvas, of the shape and dimensions given in the 
figures. On the main and orlop decks the sling-ropes are attached to 
sling-bolts; on the spar-deck, to a button. 




Fig. 5. 




ENGLISH CAVALRY. 



381 



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382 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 

It was intended to adopt the arrangement shown in figure 5, as dimi- 
nishing vibration. 

At sea, the sling is used only in cases of necessity; that is, when the 
animal shows signs of weakness in bad weather; in this case, about 1" 
play is given to the sling, as it is only intended to prevent the animal 
from falling. 

The same sling, with the addition of a breast-strap and breeching, is 
used for hoisting the animals in and out. 

Whenever it is possible, a staging is erected alongside, that the horses 
may be walked on and off the ship. 

On the spar-deck the stalls are under sheds, every eight stalls forming 
a separate set, so that they can readily be moved about when the decks 
are to be cleaned. Water-proof curtains are provided for the front and 
rear; a passage-way of 2', as a minimum, is left between the sheds and 
the bulwarks. 

The other arrangements are as on the other decks. 

To place the animals in the stalls, all the side-boards are taken out, 
except that at the end of the row.; a horse is then walked along the row 
to the last stall, and the other side-boai'd put up; then a second horse is 
put in the next stall, in the same manner, &c. The horses should always 
be placed in the stalls in the order in which they are accustomed to stand 
in the stable or at the picket-rope. 

If it is desired, during the voyage, to remove any horse from his stall, 
it is only necessary to remove the breast-board and walk him out. 

All wooden parts are washed with some disinfecting compound, or 
simply whitewashed. Chloride of zinc is freely used. 

The decks are washed every day, and the stalls cleaned after every feed, 
— especially at 7 p.m. 

From the spar and main decks the stale passes off through the scup- 
pers; from the orlop-deck it passes to the hold, and is pumped off by the 
engine. 

Not the slightest disagreeable odor could be detected on the Himalaya. 

The feed-troughs and the nostrils of the horses are washed every morn- 
ing and evening with vinegar. 

For every 8 stalls a scraper, brush, and shovel are allowed. 

The horse-guard always remain at their posts, and send for the farrier 
oi* non-commissioned ofiicers in case of necessity. 

Great attention is paid to ventilation. Although the orlop-deck is so 
hot that the animals perspire a great deal, the animals carried there came 
off the voyage in better condition than the others. 

The cavalry soldiers attend to the horses. So long as cleanliness is pre- 
served, the commander of the ship does not interfere as to the hours of 
feedinsr, &c. 



ENGLISH CAVALRY. 383 

A supply of forage is always carried on board the ship. The veteri- 
naries take their own medicines with them. 

As a proof of the perfection of the system pursued on the Himalaya, it 
should be mentioned that Captain Priest had transported 3,000 animals 
while in command of her, — some of these direct from England to Balaklava. 
Out of this number but three (3) died. 

The usual hours for feeding are 6 a.m., 11 a.m., 5| p.m.; if any horse 
refuses his food, the fact is reported at once. The horses drink con- 
densed steam. 

The regulation ration at sea is: 10 pounds of hay, 6 pounds of oats, J 
peck of bran, and 6 gallons of water, — as a maximum. 

It was thought that this was generally too great, and that two-thirds 
of this allowance, except the water, would be ample, as it is found that 
there is great danger from over-feeding at sea. 

No grain is given the day they come on board, — only a mash of bran, 
■which latter is regarded as the best habitual food at sea. 

In concluding this subject of the transportation of horses at sea, I 
would call attention to the little work of Lieut.-Col. Shirley on the sub- 
ject; it contains many excellent hints; but it must be remembered that 
the system just explained is founded on a -larger experience than that of 
Col. Shirley. 

In regard to the transportation of men, bunks and hammocks are 
generally used. Standing bunks are found to be very objectionable, on 
account of the difficulty of keeping them clean; hammocks are regarded 
as preferable for men in good health, while many officers consider it best 
to provide neither hammocks nor bunks, but to allow the men to lie down 
on the fore-decks with their blankets and overcoats. 

The following works may be consulted with advantage, as containing 
useful ideas: 

Cavalry Outpost Duty, by Lieut.-Col. Von Arentschildt. 

The Cavalry Sword Exercise. 

On the Training of Cavalry Remount Horses, by Capt. Nolan. 

Cavalry, its History and Tactics, by Capt. Nolan. 



384 THE ARMIES OF EUROPE. 



SARDINIAN CAVALRY. 



This consists of: 

4 regiments of cavalry of the line, (heavy cavalry.) 

5 regiments of light cavalry. 

Each regiment consists of 4 active and 1 depot squadrons, and has a 
strength of about 35 officers and 600 men. 

The staff of a regiment consists of: 1 colonel or lieutenant-colonel, 1 
major, 2 adjutants, 1 paymaster, 1 captain and 1 lieutenant of clothing 
and supplies, 1 chaplain, 2 surgeons, 2 veterinaries, 18 non-commissioned 
officers, &c. 

Each active squadron is composed of: 

1 captain, 2 1st lieutenants, 2 sub-lieutenants, 1 orderly sergeant, 4 
sergeants, 11 corporals, 8 lance corporals, (or Ist-class privates,) 2 trum- 
peters, 2 buglers, 1 farrier, 1 saddler, 110 privates. 

Each depot squadron consists of: 

1 captain, 1 1st lieutenant, 1 sub-lieutenant, 1 orderly sergeant, 2 ser- 
geants, 5 corporals, and 10 privates. 

There are, in addition to regiments mentioned above, 6 squadrons of 
local cavalry in the island of Sardinia ; the composition of these is nearly 
the same as that given above. 

The four regiments of heavy cavalry are armed with the sabre, lance, 
and pistols ; they wear helmets. 

Of the five light regiments, two are lancers, armed with the sabre, 
lance, and ^^ pistolon ;'^ the other three are armed with sabre, pistol, and 
rifle. 

The sabre is 3' long, broad, and nearly straight ; it has a steel scabbard 
and guard, the latter solid towards the blade; the gripe is unusually long. 

The pistol is an ordinary percussion horse-pistol, carried in the left 
holster, and secured to the saddle by a leather strap attached to the 
guard. 

The rifle has a barrel 30" long, and is carried slung over the left 
shoulder. 

The " pistolon" is a rifled carbine with a 12" barrel ; it carries a spheri- 
cal ball, and gives a satisfactory range. 



SARDINIAN CAVALRY. 385 

It may be used either as a pistol or carbine, although the stock does 
not detach ; it is habitually carried in the right holster, but there is also 
a common carbine-sling for it ; there is also a hook on one side of the 
stock, so that the men can hook it to the waist-belt when they dismount. 

The lance is about 9 J' long, with a bayonet-point, and a button at the 
end of the shaft; a strap of steel, 5' long, is screwed to the shaft; pennon 
dark blue. 

The sabre-belt is much like our own. 

The cartridge-box contains 30 rounds, and is suspended by a shoulder- 
belt; the pistol-rammer is attached to this belt. 

The saddle is a bare wooden tree, very similar to the Hungarian ; a 
small pad and a schabraque are laid on top. A common blanket, folded 
in 12 thicknesses, is placed under the saddle. Grirth and surcingle of 
leather ; stirrups of steel, and light. 

The snaffle is attached to the halter-headstall by a chain and T ; the 
curb is also of steel, and has a separate headstall, to which it is buckled. 

The valise is of cloth, and 24" long; a shelter-tent, like that of the 
French, is carried under the valise-flap. 

Spurs of steel, and fastened permanently to the boots. 

All the cavalry wear a dark-blue frock-coat, with short skirts ; pants 
and overcoat very nearly of the same color as our own. The cap resem- 
bles our dragoon shako very closely ; it has a yellow water-proof cover, 
the hind flap of which ties over the shako, and a red spherical pompon ; 
there is also a cover for the pompon. 

The seat of the pants is re-enforced with cloth, the bottom of the legs 
with leather ; the straps button on one side, and buckle on the other ; the 
pants have a black stripe. 

In the Crimea there were 4 squadrons of light cavalry, two of which 
were lancers ; the squadrons were about 130 strong. The ration of forage 
was 1] pounds of hay, and 8 quarts of barley. 

The horses were partly attached to the picket-rope by the right fore- 
foot ; some of them by a rope or strap attached to a collar. 

Their horses seemed to be excellent animals, but rather low in flesh ; 
they were mostly Italian animals. 

The appearance of the Sardinian cavalry, as indeed was that of their 
whole army in the Crimea, was excellent; indeed, the general appearance 
of their army was superior to that of either of their allies. 

It will be observed that there are no cuirassiers in the Sardinian army; 
and that their heavy cavalry differs from the light only in the size of the 
men and horses. 



38(5 UNITED STATES CAVALRY. 



UJ^ITED STATES CAVALRY. 



The nature of cavalry service in the United States being quite different 
from that performed by any in Europe, we ought not to follow blindly any 
one system, but should endeavor to select the good features, and engraft 
them upon a system of our own. 

The proper organization of our cavalry must depend upon the con- 
sideration of three things: 1st, the nature of its service against the 
Indians; 2d, its employment against a civilized enemy invading our terri- 
tory; 3d, its service in an offensive war, carried on against our neighbors. 

The Indians, against whom our cavalry are brought to bear, are gene- 
rally irregular light horsemen, sometimes living and acting altogether on 
the plains, in other localities falling back into the broken country when 
pursued: the difficulty, always, is to catch them; to do so, we must be as 
light and quick as they are, and then superiority of weapons and dis- 
cipline must uniformly give us the advantage. 

Any army invading our territory must necessarily be deficient in 
cavalry; in addition, the nature of the parts of our frontiers most liable 
to attack is not suited to the action of large bodies of cavalry, while in 
partial operations, light cavalry, well handled, ought always to be superior 
to heavy cavalry. 

Canada, Central Mexico, and the West Indies, are also unsuited to the 
operations of masses of cavalry, and in none of them are we likely to 
encounter heavy cavalry, or large numbers of light cavalry; infantry and 
artillery must generally do most of the work, while light cavalry will 
afford invaluable assistance, and in Northern Mexico play an important 
part. 

It would, therefore, seem that heavy cavalry would be worse than use- 
less for our purposes, and that we need only light cavalry, in the true 
and strictest sense of the term. 

I would propose that the regiments serving in localities where they avo. 
liable to be called upon to dismount, to follow the Indians on foot, be 
armed with the sabre, of a light pattern, the revolver, and the pistol- 
carbine, or else a rifled weapon, longer and more effective than the present 



UNITED STATES CAVALRY. 387 

carbine; that those serving on the plains be armed only with the sabre 
and revolver, giving to about 10 men in each platoon the pistol-carbine, 
or a long rifled carbine, in addition. 

The accoutrements should be so arranged that when the men dismount 
to fight on foot, they can hang the sabre to the saddle; the pistol should 
always be carried on the person ; the carbine slung over the shoulder. 

The horses should be purchased by cavalry officers, and be selected for 
activity, hardiness, and endurance. 

The men ought to be light, active, and intelligent. 

The tactical unit should be small, that it may be handled with the 
greatest possible ease and celerity, and that it may never be broken. The 
regiments, also, should be small, for the same reasons. 

The FORMATION OUGHT TO BE IN ONE RANK, as covcring the greatest 
extent of ground, admitting the most rapid movements, and bringing 
every man to bear to the greatest advantage ; suitable reserves should 
always be held in hand. 

I would propose, as the unit, for interior service, and tactical purposes, 
the company, composed as follows : 

1 captain. 

3 lieutenants, 

1 orderly sergeant. 

1 quartermaster sergeant. 

1 veterinary sergeant. 

4 duty sergeants. 

8 corporals. "■ 

66 privates. 

2 trumpeters, 
1 farrier. 

1 saddler. 

Total, 4 officers, 85 non-commissioned officers and men. 

Of this number, 6 privates and the saddler to be dismounted, leaving 
the effective force of combatants, 4 officers, 78 men, and 78 government 
horses. 

It would be advantageous to create the grade of first-class privates, say 
20 in each company, as a means of rewarding good and faithful old 
soldiers who are not fitted to become non-commissioned officers; they 
should receive somewhat more pay than the second-class privates. The 
company to be divided into two platoons, four sections, and sets of fours. 
The lieutenants and non-commissioned officers to be attached to the same 
platoon and section, for the purposes of drill and interior service. 

The posts of the officers, &c., to be as follows : 

The captain in the rank, between the platoons; when necessary, he can 
move to the front, his place being left vacant; the 1st lieutenant, com- 



388 UNITED STATES CAVALRY. 

manding tlie 1st platoon, on the right of the company; the 2d lieutenant, 
commanding the 2d platoon, on the left of the company; the 3d lieu- 
tenant, as file-closer, 4 paces in rear of the centre; this ofiicer not to be 
replaced if absent; the orderly sergeant, as file-closer, two paces behind 
the right file; the quartermaster sergeant, two paces in rear of the left 
file ; the veterinary sergeant, half-way between the orderly sergeant and 
the 1st corporal; the 1st duty sergeant, on the right of the 1st platoon; 
the 2d, on the left of the 2d platoon ; the 3d, on the left of the 1st pla- 
toon ; the 4th, on the right of the 2d platoon ; the 1st corporal, as file- 
closer, 2 paces in rear of the centre of the 1st section; the 2d, behind 
the 4th section; the 3d, behind the 2d section; the 4th, behind the 3d 
section; the 5th, to be the left file of the 1st section; the 6th, to be the 
right file of the 4th section; the 7th, to be the right file of the 2d sec- 
tion; the 8th, to be the left file of the 3d section; the buglers, 2 paces 
behind the 2d files from the inner flanks of the platoons; the farrier, 
half-way between the quartermaster sergeant and the 2d corporal; the 
saddler and the dismounted men to remain with the train. 

It will be observed that the strength of the company is the same as now 
authorized ; it requires another lieutenant, in place of the brevet 2d lieu- 
tenant, and the addition of 2 sergeants, 1 veterinary, 4 corporals, and 1 
saddler, while the number of privates is diminished by 8. 

Regiments composed of 6 companies would be preferable to the present 
organization; by the addition of 2 companies to the 40 now in service, 7 
efiective regiments would be formed. 

If this cannot be done, it would be well to decrease the number of 
companies in a regiment to 8, and form a 5th regiment of the 8 super- 
fluous companies. 

If neither of these plans can be adopted, it is believed that the modifi- 
cation proposed in the organization of the company will of itself produce 
very beneficial results. 

To the staff" of each regiment there should be added a chief veterinary, 
with the rank of sergeant major, or even as a commissioned oflScer, and a 
chief saddler ; to the standard-company there should be allowed an addi- 
tional sergeant as standard-bearer, and a corporal as assistant, or these two 
non-commissioned officers might be attached to the staff". 

If a band is considered necessary, the men ought to be considered as 
belonging to the staff", in addition to the usual strength of the regiment, 
and not to be subtracted from the strength of the companies ; it should 
be supported by the government, and not by the officers and regimental 
fund. 

It would be advisable that the hospital attendants be placed on the same 
footing ; and that a proper number of teamsters be authorized for the staff" 
and each company, to be enlisted or hired as such, and not detailed from 



UNITED STATES CAVALRY. 389 

the companies ; those for the companies should be under the sole control 
of the captains. 

The junior field officers should have a direct, specific, and well-defined 
authority over a certain number of companies, the colonel taking the 
general direction ; in a new organization it would be well to have 1 field 
officer for every 2 companies. 

It ought to be laid down that detachments shall always be composed of 
men of the same company, and never of details from difi'erent companies ; 
in the same company platoons or sections with their own officers and non- 
commissioned officers should, as far as practicable, be detached as units. 

If legislation is called for, and obtained in effecting a reorganization 
of our cavalry, I think that it would be advisable to call the unit a squad- 
ron, instead of company, in order to distinguish it from the infantry unit 
in reports, returns, &c., without the necessity of circumlocution. It is 
also of importance to obtain authority to enlist supernumerary recruits, 
who might be kept at the cavalry school, or the European system of depot 
squadrons might be adopted ; in time of war this system will be found to 
be absolutely necessary to maintain the cavalry regiments in a state of 
efficiency, and the requisite laws should be obtained in time of peace, that 
there may be no delay in taking the proper measures at the right time. 

A proper organization would authorize a moderate number of super- 
numerary officers of all grades, for detail upon detached duty, so that the 
full number required by the tactics might always be present with the 
regiments and companies. 

The efficiency of the arm would be increased were there a general of 

cavalry, whose duty it would- be to inspect the troops of the arm, watch 

over their interests, and secure uniformity in the service. This officer 

ought to have a number of aides-de-camp, all cavalry officers, who could 

make, under his orders, more frequent inspections than any one man could 

accomplish. 

TACTICS. 

The individual instruction of man and horse should be regarded as the 
most important point of the whole system, and should be as simple as 
possible ; the man should be taught to manage his horse with ease and 
address over all kinds of ground and at all gaits, to swim rivers, to go 
through certain gymnastic exercises, — such as vaulting, — to fence, to fire 
very frequently at a mark, and to handle his weapon with accuracy and 
effect at all gaits and in all situations. 

Some of the preliminary instruction prescribed in the Russian and 
Austrian tactics might be introduced advantageously. 

Every thing in reference to heavy cavalry, lancers, hussars, &c., should 
be omitted. 

I would adopt the Russian sabre exercise as the basis of our own ; in- 



390 UNITED STATES CAVALRY. 

sist upon the sabre being kept sharp in the field, provide the men with 
means of doing so, and lay it down as a rule that the strength of cavalry 
is in the " spurs and sabre." 

The instruction on foot should be carried no further than its true object 
requires; that is, to bring the men under discipline, improve their car- 
riage, and enable them to comprehend the movements they are to execute 
mounted. 

The formation for review, parade, inspection, &c., to be : the companies 
deployed in one line, with intervals of 12 paces, or else in a line of col- 
umns of companies by platoons, according to the ground. 

The Russian tactics will suggest excellent arrangements for the orders 
of battle of commands composed of regiments having ten, or fewer, com- 
panies, also for the movements of brigades, divisions, &c. 

It should be laid down as a fixed rule that no cavalry force should ever 
charge without leaving a reserve behind it, and that against civilized 
antagonists the compact charge in line should be used, in preference to 
that as foragers. 

Columns to be formed with wheeling distance, and closed in mass ; 
when closed in mass, the file-closers close up to 1 pace from the rank, 
and the distance between the subdivisions to be just enough to permit 
each company to wheel by fours. 

Marching columns to be by file, twos, fours, or platoons ; by fours and 
platoons in preference when the ground permits. 

Columns of manoeuvre to be by fours, platoons, companies, or in double 
column ; the latter always a regimental column, and to be formed on the 
two central companies, or platoons, without closing the interval between 
them. 

Deployments to be made habitually at a gallop, and the individual 
oblique to be used as much as possible. 

The instruction in two lines to be provided for. 

The Russian tactics give a good basis for the system of skirmishers, and 
charging as foragers. 

For the use of the mounted rifles, and cavalry acting as such, there 

should be a thorough system for dismounting rapidly, and fighting on 

foot. 

CAVALRY SCHOOL yVND DEPOT. 

1st. To afi"ord the young officers of mounted regiments, before joining 
their regiments, thorough instruction in the tactics, regulations for 
interior service, the general principles of field service, all necessary 
knowledge in regard to the horse, the use of weapons, &c. 

2d. To perfect the instruction of lieutenants now serving with the 
regiments in the same branches. 

3d. The instruction of non-commissioned officers sent from the regi- 



UNITED STATES CAVALRY. 391 

ments : it would be advisable to detail picked corporals, and insure, to 
a certain number of the best, promotion as sergeants immediately upon 
leaving the school. 

4th. To instruct the recruits, that they may be well drilled and 
thoroughly instructed before joining their regiments. 

5th. To break the remount horse, so that each recruit may take a well- 
broken horse with him when he joins his regiment, and that other re- 
mount horses may also be broken before being sent to the regiments. 

6th. A veterinary school should be attached to the establishment, for 
the instruction of officers and veterinaries. 

7th. A school for farriers. 

8th. A school for trumpeters. 

The systems of instruction and the organization of the French veteri- 
nary schools, and of the cavalry school at Saumur, afford, perhaps, the 
most accessible models for the basis of our own. The text-books there 
in use can readily be adapted to our own purposes, until experience 
enables us to have others of our own. 

As a first step, we should have detailed special regulations for the use 
of mounted troops in garrison and the field. 

To establish the veterinary school, I would propose the following, as 
probably the best and easiest plan : 

Select an army surgeon who has served in the field with cavalry, is 
a good judge of horses, has turned his attention somewhat to the subject, 
and would be willing to assume the proposed duty; place him at the head 
of the veterinary school, and let him prepare the necessary course of in- 
Btruction and text-books. In the first instance, at least, his assistants 
should also be of the medical staff. 

It is very certain that no officer of the line possesses the technical and 
anatomical knowledge necessary to initiate an establishment of this kind. 

Even if the school proposed cannot be established, there ought to be a 
work prepared by some of the medical corps on the veterinary science, 
for the use of cavalry officers. A small work on farriery would also be 
very serviceable. 

The pupils for the veterinary school might be selected from among the 
best recruits ; indeed, it is not improbable that the advantages of such an 
institution would induce excellent men to enlist, for the purpose of avail- 
ing themselves of its benefits. Should such be found to be the result, it 
would then be well to require them to enlist for longer than the usual 
time, as a compensation for the time spent at the school. The pupils at 
the fiirrier school should be recruits who are blacksmiths by trade. 

All the advantages of extra-duty pay ought to be secured both to the 
veterinaries and farriers. 

24 



392 UNITED STATES CAVALRY. 



PURCHASE OF HORSES. 

It would be advantageous to detail officers of cavalry on this duty, just 
as they now are for the recruiting service. In cases when cavalry officers 
are recruiting in districts where horses abound, they could attend to both 
duties at the same time. 

It might at present be proper to select the purchasing officers for their 
knowledge of horses ; but it is believed that the effect of the education 
received at the proposed cavalry school would be such that, in a few years, 
all officers would be capable of purchasing. Animals bought in this 
way, as occasion offered, and not in large numbers at a time, would be 
obtained for a more moderate price, and more careful selections could be 
made. 

They should all be sent to the cavalry school, when the commandant, 
and a certain number of the senior officers on duty there, would constitute 
a proper commission to inspect the animals and direct the service. 

There should be regulations determining approximately the height, age, 
conformation, and qualities that the horses should possess ; also a maxi- 
mum, or rather an average, price, varying from time to time, according to 
the state of the market. 

UNIFORM. 

I would recommend that the epaulette be entirely dispensed with for 
regimental officers; it is useless, expensive, and inconvenient: the strap 
on the undress uniform is a sufficient distinction of rank. 

For the men, I would replace the scales by a strap of cloth, of the same 
shape as that on the old fatigue uniform, but sewed fast to the jacket. 

They should also have a police-cap, without visor, and of such a nature 
that it can be folded up, and carried in the pouch, or wherever may be 
most convenient; the Scotch bonnet, Turkish fez, a Greek cap of knit or 
woven wool, a flexible cap of the shape of the old forage-cap, — any of 
these would answer. 

For service on the prairies, the men should have a loose flannel coat, 
leaving their uniform coat in garrison ; the ordinary dark-blue sailor's 
shirt, cut open in front, and provided with a lining and pockets, is as good 
as any thing that can be devised. 

The French fashion of giving the men a merino scarf in the field, 
instead of a stock, is worthy of consideration. 

It would be well, on many accounts, to re-enforce the pants with thin 
leather. 

The amount of clothing to be carried by each man should be limited ; 
I do not see that they need more than 2 pairs of drawers, 1 shirt, 2 pairs 
of socks, a towel, soap, and hair-comb, in addition to what they wear; 



UNITED STATES CAVALRY. 393 

during very long expeditions, extra clothing should be carried in the 
train, — never on the horses. 

The method of cold-shoeing, as described in the report upon the 
French cavalry, should be enforced, and the shoes carried by each man 
should have been previously fitted to the hoi'se. 

In diflFerent parts of this work will be found full information as to the 
cooking-utensils carried in the field by the European cavalry ; it is very 
important that competent cavalry ofiicers should fully consider this sub- 
ject, and adopt a set suitable to the requirements of our own service; 
the proper principle would be to have small messes in the field, each mess 
consisting of the smallest number that are likely to be detached as a unit, 
so that they may always have their cooking-utensils with them ; the 
utensils should be such that the men can habitually carry them on their 
own horses with convenience. 

I would recommend that the shelter-tent be adopted as a part of our 
system. 

The best model for a cavalry stable should be adopted, determining 
minutely the interior arrangements and the general plan as far as possible; 
and all stables built hereafter should be required to be in accordance with 
this plan; the drawings and descriptions furnished by the diff"erent members 
of the commission will afford the means of doing this understandingly. 

The English system for the transportation of horses by sea, as followed 
in the Himalaya, is beyond doubt the most perfect that has been devised; 
sketches and a full description of this will be forwarded in a few days, 
and it is recommended that it be inserted in our regulations, and adopted 
as our own system. 

There are other suggestions as to the regulations and the service which 
I have already made in official and unofficial communications; I will here 
allude again only to the propriety of inscribing upon the colors of each 
regiment the names of the actions in which it has borne an honorable 
part, and of placing these same names on the army register, at the head 
of the list of the officers of the regiment ; for few things are more im- 
portant than those which tend to inspire and preserve a feeling of pride 
in the regiment, on the part of all its officers and men. 



APPENDIX. 



REGULATIONS FOR THE FIELD SERVICE 
OF CAVALRY IINT TIME OF WAR. 



PART I. 

MOVEMENTS OF TEOOPS IN THE VICINITY OF THE 

ENEMY. 

INTRODUCTION. 

§ 1. The principal differences between marches near the enemy, and 
those during peace, are : 

1st. That in the former case the troops are not so much divided, but 
move in larger bodies than in peace. 

2d. That proper precautions are observed to guard against sudden 
attacks. 

Remarh. — In time of war, troops so far from the enemy as to be in no 
danger of attack observe only a part of the military precautions indicated 
below, increasing them as they approach the enemy. 

CHAPTER I. 

ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE MARCH. 
Article 1. 
General arrangements and remavTcs as to marches. 
§2. Military marches may in general be : 1. Offensive; 2. In retreat; 
3. To the flank. 

§ 3. In each of these cases the troops may move in one or several 
columns. 

§ 4. They move in several columns when in strong force, and having 
convenient roads, neither far apart, nor separated by impassable obstacles. 
But if it is necessary that a great number of troops follow the same road, 

395 



396 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

the column should be divided into echelons, following each other at inter- 
vals, in order to avoid delay from crowding. 

§ 5. It is impossible to determine with exactness the intervals between 
<lifferent columns, or between the echelons of the same column ; these 
must depend upon the nature and relative positions of the roads, as well 
as upon the strength and degree of independence of each column. But 
it may be laid down as a general rule that these distances should be such 
that the commander can concentrate and form the whole, or at least the 
greater part, of his command before being seriously attacked. 

§ 6. For the details of the distribution of the troops in the several 
columns and echelons, the rules laid down in the tactics for the formation 
of general columns must be taken as guides; observing that each fraction 
of the entire force must be so arranged that it can always form promptly 
to meet the enemy. 

§ 7. On the march, cavalry may move by twos or by fours, but in pre- 
ference by platoons when the road permits. 

Artillery marches by piece or by section. 

In a retreat, those parts of the rear guard nearest the enemy will 
:ilways march by the rear rank. 

§ 8. On the march, the distances permitted are : between companies, 
about 25 paces; between regiments, about 50 paces; between brigades, 
about 100 paces. 

Article 2. 
Precautions against sudden attack to be observed on the march. 

§ 9. To secure troops, on the march, against sudden attacks, there are 
^'ent out from the main body : an advanced guard; a rear guard; and 
fianlc detachments, or guards. 

§ 10. During offensive marches, the advanced guard consists of one- 
fourth, or one-fifth, of the whole force ; it may be increased or diminished 
according to circumstances and the iudgment of the commander. Its 
purpose is, to march at some distance in advance of the main body, in 
order : 

1. To observe the enemy betimes, and give early information of his 
appearance, strength, and direction of march. 

2. Having discovered the enemy, to follow, never losing sight of him, 
and endeavor to obtain all possible information concerning him. 

3. Should the enemy, approach and attack, to delay him long enough 
to enable the main body to form in order of battle. 

4. To examine the country in advance, and remove all obstacles from 
the road. 

5. During the arrangements of the main body for halting or encamp- 
ing, to cover it on the side of the enemy. 



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OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 39 J 

§ 11. On tlie luarcli, the advanced guard should be so far iu front that, 
without incurring too great risk, it may delay the enemy long enough 
to enable the main body to prepare to receive him. Therefore, in pro- 
portion as the advanced guard is stronger and more independent, and as 
the time required for the formation of the main body is greater, the 
farther should the advanced guard be pushed forward, up to one-half a 
day's march, or farther. In small detachments, not requiring much time 
to assemble and form, the advanced guard does not move farther than 
from one and a half to three miles in front. 

Remark. — When, under peculiar circumstances, the advanced guard is 
pushed forward a considerable distance, and therefore exposed to a sepa- 
rate defeat, or when the nature of the ground is such as to render its 
retreat difficult, there is sent out from the main body an " intermediate 
detachment," which holds itself in echelon between the two, to support 
the advanced guard if suddenly attacked. This detachment is under the 
orders of the commander of the advanced guard, who, upon meeting the 
enemy, either orders it up to assist him, or falls back upon it, according 
to circumstances. 

§ 12. For the protection of its own march, an advanced guard should 
have an advanced guard of its own, consisting of one or more companies, 
or a platoon, according to the strength of the party ; and on its flanks, 
flank guards, each of a platoon or section. 

Remark. — The standard is always left with the main body of the 
regiment. 

§ 13. The advanced and flank detachments keep themselves at from 
500 to 1,000 paces from the head and flanks of the main advanced guard, 
according to their strength and the nature of the country. 

§ 14. These detachments send out patrols in front and on the flanks, to 
examine the country and obtain early intelligence of the enemy. These 
patrols are usually at from 500 to 1,000 paces from their detachments, 
and ought to regulate their intervals so as never to lose sight of each 
other, and to form a continuous chain around the head and flanks of the 
main advanced guard. 

§ 15. The general arrangement, without regard to the ground, of an 
advanced guard, composed of 10 companies of cavalry and 6 pieces of 
horse artillery, is shown in Fig. 1. 

§ 16. An advanced guard during a march in retreat consists of a small 
number of troops, usually determined as in time of peace. 

Its purpose is : 

1. To open the way for the main body, and remove all obstacles from 
the road. 

2. To serve as the escort of the train, which should move, at least, as 



400 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

fai' in advance of the main body as it does in rear of it during an offensive 
march. 

§ 17. In this ease, the advanced guard sends out front and flank detach- 
ments and patrols, which are arranged precisely as in offensive marches. 
Here the principal object to be kept in view is that all the detachments 
may be promptly united at any moment. 

§ 18. During an offensive march the rear guard is formed according to 
the same principles as an advanced guard during a retreat. Its duty is as 
follows : 

1. To watch over the preservation of order in the rear of the column. 

2. To pick up stragglers. 

3. To protect the rear of the column and the train against sudden 
attacks by parties of the enemy. 

§ 19. In a retreat, it is the duty of the rear guard to cover the move- 
ments of the main body, as well as to repulse and delay the enemy in every 
possible manner. In this case, its duty becomes as difficult as that of the 
advanced guard in an offensive march, and sometimes more so, especially 
when the retreat is effected in sight of the enemy. The rear guard must, 
at every favorable point, use all means to check the enemy, and thus 
render it possible for the main body to retreat without precipitation. To 
effect this, it should always be much more independent than the advanced 
guard in offensive marches; for the latter can always retreat upon the main 
body, or be readily supported by it. 

§ 20. With regard to the safety of the main body, the rear guard in a 
retreat observes the rules laid down in numbers 1, 2, and 5 of § 10. 

§ 21. The strength of the rear guard depends upon several circumstances : 

1. Upon our own and the enemy's designs. 

2. Upon the proximity of the enemy. 

3. Upon the nature of his operations. 

4. Upon the distance from the main body, and the order of march of 
the latter. 

If the enemy pursues vigorously, or if the main body ought to fall back 
a great distance behind the rear guard, then the latter should be strong 
enough to operate independently, and defend itself obstinately in all favor- 
able positions. Such a rear guard should be one-fifth, or even one-third, 
of the whole force. 

§ 22. The rear guard should cover its movements, both in the offensive 
and retreat, in the manner laid down for the advanced guard in §§ 12, 13, 
and 14. 

§ 23. If the main body marches in several columns, all the rear guards 
should communicate with each other by means of patrols. They ought 
also to move in line, — that is to say, on the same general line perpendicular 
to the general direction of the march. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 401 

§ 24. To the advanced guard ia all cases, and to the rear guard in 
retreat, mounted engineer troops are attached ; in default of these, mounted 
working-parties with tools : in the first case, to remove obstacles in the 
road ; in the second case, to retard the pursuit of the enemy, by destroying 
bridges, breaking up the road, &c. 

§ 25. The distance of the rear guard from the main body depends upon' 
its strength ; generally, in a retreat, the rear guard is held at such a dis- 
tance from the main body that the latter, even when the enemy attacks in 
force, may without precipitation or impediment select its own time and 
place for halting or encamping, without making a forced march. But if 
the rear guard is weak, and the enemy pursues vigorously, the main body 
should remain near by to support it. If the main body is obliged to pass 
defiles, or if its movements are in any way retarded, it must be at such a 
distance from the rear guard as to give it time to move off a sufiicient 
distance, in spite of any unexpected delay. 

§ 26. If the main advanced and rear guards move at the distance of 
some miles from the main body, each column of the latter detaches, in 
addition, small advanced and rear parties, (one or two companies, or a 
platoon,) which march at the distance of some few hundred paces from 
each column, and perform the duties of advanced and rear guards in time 
of peace. 

§ 27. In cases where the nature of the ground, on the flanks of the 
roads, is such as to render the march of the columns insecure, small 
detachments are sent out as flankers; and from these patrols on the 
extreme flanks, as explained in §§ 12, 13, and 14. 

Article 3. 
Arrangements during a flank march. 

§ 28. In a march to the flank, if it is in the power of the enemy to 
attack the flank of the columns in march, all the parts should be so 
arranged that they may promptly, and without a long movement, change 
from the order of march to that of battle, either by wheeling into line, or 
by changing the direction of the columns, and in such a manner as to be 
able to resist his attack. Therefore, in such cases, certain troops are 
designated who are to form the line of combatants in the order of battle, 
others to form the reserve, and others to guard the trains, on the road 
farthest from the enemy. 

§ 29. During flank marches, flank detachments are sent out towards the 
enemy; they march parallel to the main column, watch the enemy, and, 
if necessary, oppose him long enough to enable the main body to form in 
order of battle. 

§ 30. The duties of these flank detachments correspond to those of 



402 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

advanced guards in offensive marches, and rear guards in retreat; because 
the flank detachments protect the main body against a sudden attack, and 
enable them either to pass from one line of operations to another, or to 
gain a position on the flank of the enemy, or, finally, to turn him. 

It should be observed, however, that flank marches should alvrays be 
undertaken and executed with many precautions ; for, when making 
them, it is easy to lose our own communications and line of retreat, if we 
have not time to gain the new line of operations. Therefore, that there 
may be no impediment during the intended flank march, every thing 
possible must be done to conceal it from the enemy, by taking advantage 
of the ground, and by the movements of the flank guard, which should 
be strong enough to offer an obstinate resistance, and keep the enemy 
away from the main body until the completion of the movement. 

§ 31. The strength of the flank guard must be in proportion to the 
duties it has to perform ; its strength must be determined upon the same 
principles as that of advanced and rear guards. 

§ 32. The arrangements for the march, and the manner of operation of 
a flank guard, depend entirely upon the position of the enemy, the nature 
of the country, and the direction of the roads. To secure the march, 
the flank guard pushes out detachments and patrols on the exposed side, 
to cover the whole flank of the columns in march. The flank guard 
itself either marches opposite the main body, or remains in position, to 
occupy points where roads coming in from the side of the enemy would 
enable him to disturb the march of our own troops. In the last case, 
when the columns of the main body have passed beyond the point occupied 
by the flank guard, the latter either occupies another point, covering the 
march, by gradually sending troops there, or else places itself as a rear 
guard behind the marching column, while, in the mean time, any other 
points to be occupied have been held by other flank guards detached 
from the main body. 

The first luethod is pursued when the ground permits the movement of 
the flank guard to be made without danger, as, for instance, along the 
banks of a stream over which there are few crossings ; the latter in all 
cases where the march of the fractions of the flank guard would be ex- 
posed to danger from the attack of the enemy. 

§ 33. The distance of the flank guard from the main body is regulated 
as in the case of an advanced guard in an offensive march. 

§ 34. Fig. 2 gives an example, without reference to the ground, of 
the flank march of a division of cavalry, under the protection of a flank 
brigade and a battery of horse artillery. 

§ 35. In addition to the main flank guard sent out in the direction of 
the enemy, each column of the main body detaches small advanced, flank, 
and rear guards. 



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OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 405 

When necessary, a special guard is detailed for the trains, which, in 
such cases, usually move in one body. 

Article 4. 
Arrangement and movement of the trains. 

§ 36. To avoid confusion and delay in the march of troops, from the 
great number of wagons with them, the trains are divided into tliree. 
classes. 

§ 37. Trains of the first class, which are needed during the march, con- 
sist of the ambulances, provided with the means of dressing wounds, and 
accompanied by the surgeon of the day, an assistant surgeon, and a party 
of hospital attendants. 

In the artillery, the spare carriages accompany the train of the 1st 
class; in the mounted engineer troops, the ponton-wagons, if there is any 
necessity for them. In addition to these, during marches near the enemy, 
the ammuuition-wagons accompany the trains of the 1st class, that the 
troops may never be in want of cartridges. 

§ 38. Trains of the 1st class follow immediately after their regiments, 
batteries, or other integral parts. 

§ 39. Trains of the 2d class, which are needed by the troops only when 
in camp, consist of: the wagons for ammunition, money, papers and 
records, tools, baggage, medicines, field-forges, artillery-wagons, staff 
baggage-wagons, pack-animals of the field and company officers, wagons 
of the office of the commander-in-chief, wagons carrying provisions and 
forage for immediate distribution, and, finally, the sutlers' wagons. Ammu- 
nitiou-wagons are separated from the others, and compose in each column 
a separate section, marching near the troops : i.e. in an ofiensive march, 
they move at the head of the trains of the 2d class, and in retreat, behind 
them. The other wagons of the 2d class move by kinds, and in the order 
named above. 

§ 40. Trains of the 2d class march behind the troops, in the interval 
between the main body and the rear guard. 

If there is no probability of meeting the enemy, or if the advanced 
guard is at a great distance (e.g. one-half a day's march) from the main 
body, then the wagons of the 2d class, belonging to the advanced guard, 
may march immediately after it; in like manner, if the general column 
moves by echelon, with intervals of half a day's march, then the wagons 
of the 2d class, belonging to each echelon, may march immediately be- 
hind it. 

But when an affair with the enemy is anticipated, all the trains of the 
2d class, except the ammunition-wagons, follow the main body, at a dis- 
tance of not less than one-half a day's march ; so that in the event of a 
retreat the wagons may not delay the movement. But in such cases the 



406 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

ammunition-wagons follow immediately after the troops to whom tliey 
belong. In a general retreat, the trains of the 2d class should be placed 
at least one-half a day's march in front of the troops, i.e. at such a dis- 
tance that in no event can they impede or delay the movements of the 
active troops. 

§ 41. Trains of the third class consist of those for which the troops have 
no immediate or pressing necessity. They are composed of provision and 
forage wagons, wagons loaded with hospital stores and equipments, ambu- 
lances for the sick who are in the general hospital, &c., &c. 

§ 42. Trains of the 3d class always march in a distinct train, separate 
from the troops, on the principal road, and under the protection of a 
special escort; the strength of which depends upon the extent of the 
train and the position of the enemy. 

§ 43. The number of wagons allowed in the 2d and 3d classes depends 
upon circumstances, and special orders issued during the campaign. 
Commanders of separate detachments may be allowed to vary the number 
of wagons in each class according to circumstances. 

§ 44. In the march of a large number of wagons, any obstacle to a 
section, or a single wagon, delays all that follow, and thus extends to the 
whole train. To avoid this difficulty, large trains are divided into sections 
of about 100 wagons each, which march about one-third of a mile apart. 

§ 45. If, in addition to the ammunition-wagons, there are some loaded 
with loose powder, they are formed in separate sections* and placed in the 
part of the train least exposed to the enemy. No foreign matter is to be 
placed on these wagons. 

§ 46. The head of each section must occasionally halt for a moment, 
that the rear may keep closed up. 

§ 47. Detailed arrangements for the formation and march of trains 
should be made. 

Article 5. 

The defence of trains. 

§ 48. The duties of troops detailed as the escort of a train are: 1st. 
To enforce the preservation of order. 2d. To assist their rapid and unin- 
terrupted march. 8d. To defend them if attacked. 

§ 49. A portion of the escort, detailed to watch over the order of 
march, distributes itself as a chain along the whole length of the train. 
If the escort is small, a certain number of privates, under the charge of 
a non-commissioned officer, are placed in charge of a section, or certain 
number of wagons, and are responsible for their order of march. 

§ 50. When the roads are very bad, some of the escort are dismounted, 
in order to be in readiness to assist any wagons that may mire, break down, 
or meet with any impediment. 



OFCAVALRYINTIMEOFWAR. 407 

§ 51. A working-party marches at the head of the escort to repair the 
road. The strength of this party will depend upon the number of wagons, 
the state of the road, &c. 

§ 52. The strength and composition of the escort of a train must de- 
pend upon the probability of attack, the extent of the train, and, finally, 
on the nature of the country through which the train is to pass. 

§ 53. If the escort is of infantry, a small party of cavalry must be 
added to look out for the enemy, patrol, &c. 

§ 54. In all cases, the commander of the escort has absolute control 
over all persons on duty with or accompanying the train. 

§ 55. The commander of the escort should possess accurate informa- 
tion concerning the country through which the train is to pass, that he 
may make the proper arrangements for its security. 

§ 56. A part of the escort always marches as an advanced guard, and 
another portion as a rear guard. The main body is concentrated at points 
determined by the danger ; if necessary, it detaches flank guards, which 
send out patrols. In an open country, and when there is no reason to 
expect the enemy at any particular point, the main body of the escort 
marches alongside of the centre of the train. Under other circumstances, 
they are concentrated at the head or in rear of the train, according to 
the direction in which the enemy is expected. 

§ 57. The advanced guard is thrown forward a sufficient distance to 
remove all obstacles that would delay the train. By means of its patrols 
it examines the woods, villages, and defiles ; keeps up its communication 
with the main body, and reports to the commander of the escort every- 
thing observed. 

§ 58. The advanced guard selects suitable positions for halting-places, 
camps, and for parking the train. 

§ 59. The advanced guard occupies all defiles and positions which 
would enable the enemy to attack with advantage ; it does not abandon 
them before the arrival of the main body of the escort, which last holds 
them until the train arrives. If necessary, the escort is relieved by a 
small flank detachment, or may itself remain in position until the whole 
train has passed by and is out of danger. 

§ 60. If the enemy is expected from the rear, the suitable measures 
are taken ; the rear guard destroying the bridges, dikes, &c., behind it, 
and throwing all possible obstacles in the path of the enemy. The rear 
guard should constantly keep up its communication with the main body 
by means of patrols. 

§ 61. If the enemy threatens the flanks, and the ground is too much 
broken for the action of cavalry, the defence of the train becomes diffi- 
cult for that arm. In such cases, small parties of cavalry are with the 
advanced and rear guards; but the main escort is composed of infantry. 



408 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

who occupy positions favorable for protecting tlie train before its head 
arrives opposite to them, and do not abandon those positions until the 
rear of the train has passed by. 

§ 62. Fig. 3 gives an example of the march of a train escorted by 
10 companies of cavalry, 2 pieces of horse artillery, and 2 regiments of 
infantry. 

Article 6. 

Of sliort halts during the march, halts for the night, and halts for an 

entire day. 

§ 63. The length of a march near the enemy depends upon circum- 
stances, and cannot be determined absolutely. 

Under ordinary circumstances, the length of march may be about 17 
miles; but in case of necessity it may be extended to 30 miles. Small 
detachments move with much greater rapidity than entire corps, or 
armies. As a general rule, troops should not be exhausted by forced 
marches. 

Small detachments of cavalry may make marches of 40, 50, or even 70 
miles ; but this refers only to exceptional cases, when the success of the 
enterprise in hand depends upon the suddenness of their appearance. 

The ordinary rate of march should be about 3 miles per hour. When 
the roads are good, it is advisable to move at a moderate trot, walking for 
some distance before each halt, and before reaching camp;, for it is proper 
to give the horses as much time as possible to feed and rest in camp. 

Generals and other officers, furnished with an escort of cavalry, should 
regulate the rate of their march in accordance with what is laid down 
above, and are not permitted, except in cases of absolute necessity, to 
urge the escort to an immoderate speed for the sake of their own con- 
venience. 

§ 64. Short halts are made from time to time, as prescribed for marches 
in time of peace ; that is, a halt for 10 or 15 minutes every hour, and in 
long marches, one or two long halts of about an hour each. 

§ 65. When near the enemy, it is necessary to arrange the distances 
between the camps, or bivouacs, so that the columns of the main body 
can easily be assembled at the general point of rendezvous; then the 
reserves are to be placed near the roads by which the enemy is expected, 
in positions convenient to wood and water. 

§ 66. The various parts of the army are so arranged that, if the enemy 
attacks, they can readily move out upon the roads, or quickly form in 
order of battle in a position chosen beforehand, either in front or in the 
rear of encampment or bivouac. 

§ 67. The main body should always be secure from a sudden attack : 
therefore, (notwithstanding there is an advanced guard in front and a 



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OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 411 

rear guard behind,) patrols are sent out from it, and a party is detailed, 
which does not unsaddle, and always remains ready for action ; some- 
times, to prevent being turned, separate posts are sent out on the flanks, 
and sometimes the troops are protected in their camp by advanced posts, 
arranged according to the rules laid down in Part II. 

§ 68. The advanced and rear guards take measures not only for their 
own safety, but also for that of the main body, placing themselves for this 
purpose in positions suitable for action, and watching all the roads lead- 
ing from the enemy. 

§ 69. When it is perfectly certain that none of the enemy are in the 
vicinity, each column may pass the night by itself, on the road by which 
it marches. 

§ 70. In flank marches of several days' duration, the camps for the 
night should be placed in such positions that the main body may be secure 
from attack, and in case of the appearance of the enemy in superior force 
be able to retreat, i.e. either to preserve the old road of march and com- 
munication, or in some manner to gain a new one. The arrangements 
for halts and camps for the night are the same as in ofi"ensive marches. 

§ 71. In regard to the short halts of trains the following rules are pre- 
scribed : As in the case of cavalry, the head of the train occasionally 
makes short halts to enable the rear to close up, and if the train is divided 
into several sections, the head of each section does the same thing. 

During these halts the wagons remain in the road, not turning to one 
side, or changing the arrangement of the wagons and escort from what it 
was during the march. 

§ 72. Long halts, during which the animals are fed, are made only 
when the march is very long, or the roads very bad, and the animals 
fatigued. When the object is not to overtake the troops when at a halt, 
it is better to leave the train longer in camp, and then make the whole 
march without a halt; in this manner the animals are not kept so long in 
harness, and can therefore rest and feed better. 

§ 73. During long halts, and camps for the night, the train is placed 
more compactly than usual; for which purpose a proper place is selected 
for placing all the wagons together, in order that, being less scattered, a 
better watch may be kept upon them, and better order be preserved. 
When danger is apprehended from the enemy, it is best to park the train 
in column, because this formation is changed more quickly than any other, 
and from it it is easier to take the road at the end of the halt, or when 
leaving camp. 

Remark. — In this formation the average interval of 8 yards in width 
is allowed each wagon. The harness is either piled up behind the wagon, 
or hung on the wheels, and the animals are attached to the pole. The 



412 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

distance between each row of wagons in the column may be fixed at 
about 20 paces. 

Light wagons of the 2d class, although they move in separate trains, 
are not brought together in camp, but bivouac in rear of the corps to 
which they belong. If there are wagons loaded with powder, cartridges, 
or other combustibles, precautions must be taken to guard them from fire, 
and it is, therefore, best to park them in a separate place, apart from the 
rest of the train. The escort bivouacs at the head, or on the flanks, of 
the train, as may be most convenient j guards and sentinels are posted to 
preserve order; if the teamsters are not to be trusted, and desertions are 
apprehended, the whole train is surrounded by a chain of sentinels. 

§ 74. When an attack is expected, the train should be corralled, or else 
parked in a square with the hind-wheels outside, and the animals in the 
centre. 

In this case, the escort places itself in a suitable position, keeping in 
view the defence of the position occupied by the park, and takes all the 
military measures of precaution necessary to secure itself and the train 
against a sudden attack. 



CHAPTER II. 



DUTIES OF THE COMMANDERS OF THE VARIOUS PARTS OF THE 
TROOPS DURING MILITARY MARCHES. 

Article 1. 

Duties of the commander-in-chief. 

§ 75. The commander-in-chief must cause the roads by which he in- 
tends to march, as well as the country on each side, to be examined by 
officers of the general stafi", or by patrols ; but if, from the proximity of 
the enemy, or other causes, this is impossible, it is necessary, at least, to 
obtain information concerning their nature and practicability by inquiries 
of the inhabitants, &c. 

§ 76. He must take steps to procure a sufficient number of reliable 
guides, so that each separate detachment may have its own ; this is espe- 
cially important in thinly-inhabited districts, and in movements by cross- 
roads. 

§ 77. In relation to seeking and employing guides, the following rules 
are laid down: 1. To be watchful, lest the guides, for their own purposes, 
prejudice us in any manner; 2. To select guides from among hunters, 
woodsmen, stage or wagon drivers, and herdsmen, as well as peddlers and 
travelling beggars, because the country is well known to these classes 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 413 

of people; 3. To change the guides as seldom as possible, especially in 
localities where parties of the enemy may be met with ; 4. To treat the 
guides kindly and mildly, and to reward them well ; but to watch them 
closely and prevent them from passing over to the enemy, and to send 
them back by the road over which they came. 

§ 78. He regulates the distribution of the troops, the order of march,. 
and the precautionary measures; he arranges the disposition of the troops 
for the movement, by means of the maps of the country, and the inform- 
ation obtained concerning it and the enemy. 

§ 79. The orders should be brief, clear, and positive. All minute 
details, which might, in unforeseen cases, trammel the subordinate com- 
manders in the execution of their orders, should be avoided. 

§ 80. The orders for the march should specify : 

1. The number of columns; under whose command each column is to 
be; precisely where, and by what roads, the march is to be made. 

2. The strength of each column, echelon, advanced, rear, and flank 
guard. 

3. At what hour each column or party is to move. 

4. Where and when the train is to assemble and move, and under the 
escort of what detachment. The road by which the train is to move 
should be carefully considered, in order that in the event of a sudden 
retreat the troops may find the most important roads clear. 

5. The principal measures of precaution to be observed. 

6. Where the commander-in-chief will be found during the march, so 
that the subordinate commanders may know whither to send their reports. 

7. Finally, every thing rendered necessary by the circumstances is 
mentioned in the orders, and sometimes the general arrangements in case 
of meeting the enemy. 

§ 81. In the distribution of the troops into several columns, for the 
march, the commander-in-chief will observe the following rules : — 

1. The number of columns must depend upon the whole number of 
troops, and upon the number, nature, and degree of separation of the 
roads. 

2. The movement of a large body of troops, as, for instance, an array 
corps, by one road, besides the difficulty of supplying them, renders the 
march difficult and slow; and, in addition, a long column requires much 
time to take up its order of battle. On the other hand, if the number 
of columns is very great, it may be difficult to keep up the proper con- 
nection ; besides, when there are many roads near and parallel to each 
other, they are seldom of a nature favorable to the movements of large 
bodies of troops. 

3. The intervals between the columns should always be such that they 
can give reciprocal support upon the appearance of the enemy, and not 

25 



414 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

be in danger of being turned or separated. Tliis interval will depend 
upon the nature of the country : the more broken it is, the nearer should 
the columns be to each othei", for in this case more time is required to 
concentrate the troops, the transmission of orders and information is 
slower, and it is mure difficult to watch the enemy. In addition to these 
considerations, the intervals between the columns should be regulated 
by the proximity of the enem}^ ; the nearer he is, the less should these 
intervals be. 

4. The principal masses of the troops move upon the roads on which 
it is expected to meet the main body of the enemy, or by which the 
principal attack is to be made upon him. 

5. Each kind of troops is moved towards the locality best suited fur 
its operations. 

6. If one flank is particularly threatened by the enemy, the columns 
on that side are reinforced, and the reserves drawn near them. 

§ 82. To secure harmony of movement and the facility of mutual sup- 
port, the commander-in-chief should — 

1. Watch that the main columns are all equally advanced : therefore, 
he equalizes the rate of march on different roads, slackens the gait of 
certain columns, or increases the number and duration of the halts; regu- 
lating these things not only upon the length of march of each column, 
but upon all the circumstances that may influence the velocity of the 
movement, such as the nature of the road, the number of troops in the 
several columns, and the obstacles that may be encountered. 

2. Take care that the columns do not cross each other. 

3. Maintain a constant communication between the columns by means 
of patrols, which at the same time examine the intermediate country. 

4. Take all precautions to enable the columns to unite at any moment : 
he therefore avoids separating the troops by insurmountable obstacles. 

§ S3. That he may, under all circumstances, have it in his power to 
place the troops in position, the commander-in-chief should know nut 
only where the troops ought to be at any given time, but also where they 
actually are. For this purpose, he requires every commander of an ad- 
vanced guard, or chief of a separate column, to report not only the ap- 
pearance of the enemy, as well as particular events and delays, but also 
his distance from known points on the road, and his arrival at halting- 
places and camps. These reports should be made the more frequently in 
proportion to the proximity of the enemy. 

§ 84. To watch over the order of march, the commanders of the main 
and detached columns should occasionally halt and allow their commands 
to pass by them, so as to see that the column is not too much lengthened 
out, particularly in the march of large bodies on one road. 

§ 85. The commander-in-chief and the subordinate commanders see 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 415 

that all persons belonging to the combatants, and for duty, march in the 
proper places. The non-combatants, dismounted men, led horses of the 
officers and men, march with the trains of the second class. 

§ 86. In parties near the enemy, i.e. advanced guards, front and flank 
detachments, rear guards in retreat, patrols, &c., the firearms should be 
loaded. In the main body, the arms are loaded only when an afiair is 
anticipated. 

§ 87. When passing through towns or villages, by farms, inns, wells, 
and such places, the commander-in-chief and the subordinate commanders 
turn their attention to preventing disorder, by closely watching that no 
one leaves the ranks. 

§ 88. In passing defiles and crossing rivers the commander-in-chief 
watches — 

1. That the troops do not crowd together at the entrance, or stretch 
out in passing through, but that they preserve their proper distances. 

2. That, in crossing rivers in boats or ferries, each party knows when 
and after what other party it is to cross. 

3. That, as soon as any troops have crossed, they form in conformity 
with the orders they have received. 

4. That the drivers of the artillei*y and train do not dismount without 
orders. 

5. That, in crossing fords, the men follow each other at the prescribed 
distance; that the wagons do not drive in one after another, but that each 
waits until the one in front has gained a certain distance, or even reached 
the opposite shore. In case of necessity, some officers are left to super- 
intend the crossing. At difficult crossings a detachment may be left to 
assist the artillery and train. 

§ 89. During secret or night marches, trumpet signals are not used ; 
orders are given in a low tone of voice. In secret night marches, smoking 
and striking fire are forbidden. 

§ 90. The commander-in-chief watches that, during halts, as well as on 
the march, the troops are protected by advanced and rear guards, flank 
detachments, and patrols; also, when in camp, as explained hereafter in 
Part II. 

§ 91. Upon approaching the place Avhere the troops are to halt, bivouac, 
or encamp, the commander-in-chief sends forward betimes officers of the 
stafl", with non-commissioned officers from every party, to mark the place 
to be occupied by each. 

§ 92. Since the advanced and rear guards are more fatigued than tho 
other troops, on account of their continual state of vigilance and prepara- 
tion, the commander-in-chief should relieve them by fresh troops from 
time to time. 



416 EEGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

Article 2. 

Duties of the commander of the advanced guard. 

§ 93. Upon commencing the march, he sends out front and flank de- 
tachments, as explained in §§ 12, 13, and 14. 

§ 94. He places an officer, or non-commissioned officer, in charge of 
every party detached, and explains to them what patrpls they are to send 
out, and exactly in what direction, and gives them special instructions as 
to what they are to do in different cases. 

§ 95. During the march he watches that the detachments and patrols 
maintain their communication with each other and himself, and that they 
perform their duties strictly. Not hlindly trusting to the advanced and 
flank detachments for security, he should see that his command marches 
in the best order, and in the habitual formation, according to the nature 
of the ground. 

§ 96. When in pursuit of the enemy, he should never lose sight of 
him, follow all his movements promptly and continually, and ascertain his 
strength, direction, and designs, as well as possible. 

§ 97. He should exert himself to obtain reliable and detailed informa- 
tion concerning the enemy and the country in advance, by means of 
patrols, spies, inquiries from prisoners and the inhabitants. 

§ 98. He interrogates deserters and prisoners as to — 

1. The names and strength of their regiments, and the detachment to 
which they belong. 

2. What brigade, division, and army corps they belonged to; the names 
of their commanders. 

3. Where their corps are quartered. 

4. What are the dispositions of their regiments, brigades, and divisions. 
If the corps is in position, the strength of its advanced posts, and whether 
it is carefully guarded. 

5. What corps or divisions are near their own ; where they are, and at 
what intervals. 

6. When and where they left their regiments ; whether detachments 
were sent out from the corps, in what force, and whether they expected 
support. 

7. Whether there were any orders or rumors in regard to intended 
movements, and exactly what they were. 

8. Whether provisions and supplies were abundant, and the situatiou 
of the magazines. 

9. Whether thei*e was much sickness, or any epidemics, and the situa- 
tions of the main and temporary hospitals. 

In few words, endeavor to obtain information about every thing which 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 417 

relates to the arrangements of the enemy, his strength, designs, and 
means of all kinds. 

§ 99. It is impossible to place much reliance upon the testimony of 
prisoners and deserters : on the one hand, they may be too ignorant to 
give a definite answer ; on the other, they may, from fear, reply accord- 
ing to the wishes of the questioner, or they may deliberately falsify. It 
is therefore necessary frequently to repeat the same questions unexpectedly, 
so as to compare the different answers, and also to compare the statements 
of different individuals. 

§ 100. The commander of the advanced guard will, without delay, 
report to the commander-in-chief every thing observed Avith regard to the 
enemy, every considerable detention, his arrival at remarkable points on 
the road, (such as towns, rivers, &c.,) and his arrival at halting-places 
and camps. 

§ 101. Upon occupying any town, the commander of the advanced guard 
should take every means to obtain information as to military movements ; 
for this purpose, he should at once seize the archives and papers of the 
authorities of the place, and also the letters and papers in the post-office. 

§ 102. Upon receiving from the advanced parties or patrols any intel- 
ligence, especially if it concerns the movements of the enemy, he should 
endeavor to verify it in person, or by means of reliable officers, and then 
make his own report positively and distinctly, so that no unfounded or 
exaggerated report may unnecessarily alarm the main body and arrest its 
march. The nearer he is to the enemy, the more frequently should he 
send reports to the commander-in-chief. 

§ 103. These reports are made either verbally through aides, or in 
pencil. The time and place whence the report is sent should be noted on 
the paper. The greatest attention should always be paid to giving the 
correct names of towns, villages, streams, &c. 

§ 104. Reports should be written with the greatest care and attention, 
for upon the comparison of reports the movements of the main body must 
depend. The most important qualities of the reports are clearness, per- 
spicuity, precision, and reliability. They should contain only what the 
sender has seen himself, or properly inquired into. Every thing which he 
could not examine himself ought to be stated separately, with the degree 
of confidence to be reposed in the source whence it was derived. 

§ 105. When sending a verbal report, the commander of the advanced 
guard must satisfy himself not only that the bearer can repeat it word for 
word, but that he comprehends its precise meaning. If possible, it is 
best to send with all such despatches some of those who were ocular 
witnesses of the subject of the report. If the report is important, and 
there is danger of the bearer being captured, it is best to send a duplicate 
after the lapse of a short interval. It is useful to number all reports, for 



418 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

should oue be captured or arrive before another seut previously, the 
aeries of numbers enables this to be detected. These remarks apply not 
only to the reports sent by the commander of the advanced guard, but, in 
general, to all reports sent in time of war. The adoption of a simple 
cipher will often be of advantage. 

§ lOG. The commander of the advanced guard attends to the repairs 
of the road, bridges, causeways, &c. If the repairs are heavy, and exceed 
the means at his disposal, he promptly informs the commander-in-chief. 

§ 107. When the commander of the advanced guard is informed of 
the appearance of the enemy, he at once takes the measures rendered 
proper by the object of the march and the orders he has received : i.e. 

1. He takes up a position in order to keep the enemy in check until 
the arrival of the main body ; or, 
.2. Marches to meet and attack the enemy; or, finally, 

3. Falls back upon the main body, endeavoring to delay the enemy as 
long as possible, so as to give the main body time to form and change 
from the order of march to that of battle. 

§ 108. For camps, the commander of the advanced guard selects places 
advantageous for defence and secure against sudden attack. Entire 
detachments should not be placed in woods, defiles, towns, or villages, but 
they should be occupied only by a part of the command, the rest remain- 
ing near by. If there are defiles in advance, through which it is intended 
to march, their debouches should be occupied in force, in order to secure 
them for our ulterior movements. 

§ 109. The commander of the advanced guard secures his camp by 
outposts. 

llemark. — All the duties prescribed for the commander of the advanced 
guard in ofi"eusive marches apply equally to the commander of the flank 
guard during a march to the flank. 

§ 110. In a retreat, the commander of the advanced guard follows the 
same rules as in the ofi"ensive, and takes great pains to remove all obstacles 
that might impede the march of the train and the main body. To repair 
the road, he detaches mounted engineer troops or working-parties, with 
the requisite tools, and pursues his march with the remainder of his com- 
mand. 

Article 3. 

Duties of the commander- of the rear guard. 

§ 111. His principal duties, during a pursuit by the enemy, consist — 

1. In indefatigable vigilance. 

2. In the preservation of the best order and most severe discipline. 

3. In sustaining the courage and spirits of his troops. 

§ 112. He should use every exertion to ascertain the movements and 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF AVAR. 4i0 

designs of the enemy, that he may be able to take in time the measures 
necessary to thwart and oppose him. 

§ 113. He secures and guards his march as the advanced guard does 
on the offensive. By a turning movement, the enemy may force the rear 
guard to accelerate its march, and thus throw it into disorder ; for this 
reason, the commander should pay especial attention to his flanks and to 
the cross-roads, by which the enemy might turn and attack him ; if neces- 
sary, he may send out, instead of the usual small detachments, large and 
independent parties which can resist the attack. 

§ 114. The rear guard should always be in a condition to form in order 
of battle ; therefore, those portions near the enemy retreat by the rear 
rank, so that they have only to face about. 

§ 115. That he may be able to preserve order in the rear guard when 
retreating in sight of the enemy, especially during the rigor of his pur- 
suit, the commander ought not to conduct the retreat with all the troops 
at once, but with one portion fighting to protect the other, which latter 
in the mean time retreats, occupies an advantageous position in rear, and 
then receives the shock of the enemy in turn, thus allowing the first por- 
tion to pass by to the rear. 

§ IIG. The portion of the rear guard covering such a retreat ought 
to avoid engaging in a decisive combat, and merely check the enemy long 
enough to enable the portion in retreat to gain its newly-chosen position. 

§ 117. The commander of a rear guard, in a retreat, should resort to 
all means of retarding the pursuit of the enemy; for this purpose, he 
orders the roads to be broken up, bridges to be destroyed, defiles to be 
blocked up, &c. 

§ lis. During an offensive march, if there is no danger of an attack 
upon the rear of the column, the duties of the commander of the rear 
guard are as in peace : he superintends the preservation of order in the 
train, and picks up stragglers, &c. 

§ 119. In all cases, the commanders of rear guards ought to report to 
the commander of the main body every thing that occurs to their party. 

Article 4. 
Duties of the commanders of advanced, flank, and rear detachments. 

§ 120. They send out patrols, as laid down in § 14, to examine the 
greatest possible amount of ground on all sides, and to obtain information 
of the enemy; the number of the patrols must depend upon circum- 
stances and the nature of the country. 

In open country they are small, and at great intervals apart. In a 
rough, broken country, in foggy or very rainy weather, in night marches, 
the number of patrols is increased, and they remain near their detach- 



120 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

meats. Patrols are not sent out in very dark nights, unless it is abso- 
lutely necessary. 

§ 121. The commanders of detachments upon sending out patrols 
should instruct them in what direction to march, what intervals to pre- 
serve, and to what objects and places their attention should chiefly be 
directed. 

§ 122. If there are defiles, woods, villages, &c., in front, the advanced 
and flank detachments should examine them by patrols before entering 
them, lest they should be suddenly attacked and cut ofi". 

§ 123. On approaching a village, the commander of a detachment 
orders his patrols to seize, in some way or other, some of the inhabitants 
for interrogation, as to whether the enemy is concealed in the village, or 
its vicinity; whether he has passed through it; if he has passed, in what 
force, with what kind of troops, when, and in what direction. The in- 
habitants seized should not be dismissed until the whole detachment has 
left the village. 

§ 124. Commanders of advanced, flank, and rear detachments, upon 
receiving reports from their patrols, should endeavor to verify them in 
person, particularly in important cases, and ought not to make their own 
reports until fully satisfied of the truth of those of the patrols. 

§ 125. Commanders of detachments should endeavor to maintain a con- 
stant communication with the parties on their flanks by means of patrols. 
Flank detachments should not be long separated from their corps by im- 
passable places, such as woods, marshes, lakes, &c. ; but if these obstacles 
are not very extensive, the detachment and its patrols march on the outer 
side of them, in order to examine the country more fully. 

§ 126. If the enemy appears, or attacks in force, the commanders of 
the advanced, flank, and rear detachments call in their patrols, and, with- 
out accepting combat, retreat upon their column under cover of skir- 
mishers, merely endeavoring to delay the enemy as long as possible. If, 
however, an opportunity ofi'ers to capture one of the enemy's patrols, 
without delaying its own march, the detachment should undoubtedly 
avail itself of the chance. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 421 



CHAPTER III. 

DUTIES OF PATROLS DURING THE MARCH. 

§ 127. Patrols are parties of various strength detached either from 
troops on the march to examine the country, or from troops in position 
to obtain news of the enemy. 

In this chapter, patrols of the first kind are alone treated of; the 
duties of patrols sent out by troops in position will be given in Part II., 
Chapter IV. 

§ 128. The principal duty of patrols is to discover the enemy betimes, 
and thus secure the detachment to which they belong, as well as the rest 
of the army, against sudden attacks. 

§ 129. Patrols should not consist of less than 12 or 15 men; for they 
ought to be able to attack the enemy's patrols by surprise, without too 
much risk. 

§ 130. The men composing a patrol should not keep too close together, 
but stretch out as much as the ground and the force of the patrol will 
permit; never forgetting that it is very important that they should not 
all be captured at once. 

§ lol. Patrols on the march move at a fixed distance from their de- 
tachment, keep up their communications, never lose sight of each other 
if they can avoid it, and form a continuous protective chain around the 
army. 

§ 132. In a patrol of 15 men, the commander arranges them as follows : 
two or three of the most intelligent and best mounted men are sent in 
advance; if one is sent back with a report, the others remain in advance, 
and keep sight of the object reported. The rest of the patrol march ac- 
cording to the arrangement indicated in fig. 4, at 150 or 200 paces behind 
these advanced men, having their rear guard about 100 paces behind. 

§ 133. Fig. 5 shows the arrangement of a patrol of 30 men. 

Remarks. — 1st. With every 10 men a non-commissioned ofiiccr is sent; 
30 men and over are commanded by an ofiicer. 

2d. The men in front, on the flanks, and in rear of a patrol, are called 
patr oilers . 

§ 134. The flank patrollers regulate themselves on the position of the 
patrol, which is on the road, and endeavor not to lose sight of it. They 
take care not to be separated from it by impassable obstacles ; for this 
reason, when they meet with such places, they join the advanced patrollers, 
or the main patrol itself, until the obstacle is passed. 

§ 135. During the night the patrols draw near to their detachment, 



422 



REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 



and endeavor to connect with each other by a chain of men, that the 
enemy may not slip through the intervals under cover of the darkness. 

§ 136. It is impossible to regulate with exactness the space to be 
covered by patrols, but the following remarks will serve as guides : 
Fig. 4. Fig. 5. 

/ 






Patrols should cover and protect the march, but ought not to scatter so 
much as to be unable to assemble quickly if they meet the enemy. In a 
level country, where they can see a great distance in advance, there is 
less danger in stretching out than in a broken, wooded, or mountainous 
region. The main consideration is, that the patrol should be able to 
survey at a glance the whole of the space confided to it; the extent of 
this space will, therefore, depend upon the nature of the ground, as well 
as upon the weather, and whether the march is at night or in the daytime. 

§ 137. A detachment destined to attack the enemy by surprise should 
not send out its patrols so far as one intended merely to reconnoitre; 
because the enemy, being warned by the appearance of the patrols, would 
be on the alert. 

§ 138. Patrollers should look around carefully on all sides, and often 
halt to listen. If they hear the slightest suspicious noise, however in- 
definite in its nature, particularly at night or in an obstructed country, 
or if they observe dust, smoke, the glitter of arms, or any signs whatever 
of the enemy, such as the sound of footsteps, rumbling of wheels, noise 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 423 

of horses, &c., they at once inform the nearest non-commissioned officer, 
who reports to the commander of the detachment. The whole party 
then halts, the flank patrols face outwards, the rear guard faces to the 
rear, and the march is arrested until the cause of the noise is ascertained, 
or the object which attracted attention examined. 

Remark. — Reports should be made in a clear, calm tone of voice. 

§ 139. The flank patrols ascend every eminence on the side of their 
route, and remain there, fticing outwards, until the detachment passes by 
or sends another patrol to relieve them. 

Remark. — In ascending a hill to reconnoitre, one man should precede 
the others, riding very slowly; when near the top, he takes off his cap 
and moves up just far enough to see over, covering himself by trees, 
bushes, &c., as well as possible; in this manner he may see the enemy 
without being discovered by them. 

§ 140. Patrols turn their attention to every thing which may dis- 
close the movements of troops passing by, notice the direction of their 
march, &c. 

§ 141. Patrols should examine carefully every thing which may con- 
ceal the enemy, such as houses, woods, coppices, ravines, &c. In passing 
by such places, the patrols endeavor to ascertain whether they arc occu- 
pied by the enemy, and then either occupy them themselves, or pass by 
with the utmost precaution. Defiles, bridges, ravines, hollow ways, dikes, 
and rivers, should be carefully examined; having passed them, the front 
patroUers should at once place themselves on the highest bank to observe 
the environs. 

§ 142. A special patrol of 2 or 3 men is sent to examine any remark- 
able object which is too far off to be visited by the flank patroUcis ; the 
rest halt, and await their return : such patrols should move at a moderate 
gait. 

§ 143. If it is necessary to pass through a village, the operation is con- 
ducted as follows. One of the front patrollers approaches it. If it is in 
the day, he rides through several streets and asks for the chief person of 
the place; in the mean time the other front patrollers ride along the 
skirts of the village. Having found the chief person of the place, the 
front patroller conducts him to the commander of the advanced guard, 
which now approaches the village ; the patroller then rides through the 
village with his comrades, and halts on the farther side in some elevated 
position. There they await the arrival of the advanced guard. 

§ 144. If a village is to be passed at night, the front patrollers go 
quietly to the first house, call out its master, take him away, and obtain 
the necessary information from him ; afterwards they go for the chief 
person of the place. 

§ 145. Before entering a woods, the front patrollers must ascertain that 



424 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

the enemy does not occupy the skirts, and one or two men should ride 
around the whole woods, if it is not too extensive ; all the cross-roads 
should be examined to the distance of several hundred paces by flank 
patrols, who afterwards overtake the patrol. Before entering open fields 
in a forest, patrollers should ride all around the edges. 

§ 146. The patrols detain all persons met on the road, and send them 
to the commander of the detachment for examination. The commander 
retains, under guard, all who are suspicious characters, as well as those 
who have witnessed important movements, or whose testimony is of such 
importance as to need verification. 

§ 147. Upon the appearance of hostile patrols and patrollers, flags of 
truce, or deserters, our own patrollers, even if in considerable force, at 
once inform the commander of the patrol, who, satisfying himself of the 
true state of the case, at once takes the necessary measures. 

If he sees a weak patrol of the enemy, or single soldiers straggling off 
for pillage, he quietly endeavors to seize and disarm them ; he stops the 
flag of truce, blindfolds, and places him under the charge of a trustworthy 
soldier, who, not allowing him to turn back, conducts him to the com- 
mander of the detachment. 

§ 148. Whenever the commander of a patrol perceives, from a distance, 
the approach of the enemy in strong force, he at once informs the com- 
mander of the detachment, and at the same time endeavors to get nearer 
the enemy to ascertain his strength, &c. ; finally, he retreats upon the 
detachment without exposing himself. 

Remark. — In this, and all similar cases, the party falling back should 
move as slowly and in as good order as possible. 

§ 149. A patrol only gives notice of the approach of the enemy by 
firing when it is suddenly driven in and has no time to send a report. 
Therefore, a patrol should be in no hurry to fire when it discovers the 
enemy ; for it may happen that we see him before he discovers us, and 
then, if we are only engaged in watching him, we should endeavor to fall 
back on the detachment without being observed. 

§ 150. Upon the first shot fired by the patrollers, the whole patrol 
forms, and the commander acts according to circumstances. If the enemy 
is the stronger, he falls back upon the detachment, covering himself 
by skirmishers ; but, if it is possible, he endeavors to capture the enemy's 
patrollers, and sends back those taken to the commander of the detach- 
ment. 

If attacked by surprise, the patrol should defend itself to the utmost, 
and fire a few shots, even if in the air, to warn the detachment of its 
danger. In such cases, it is not always advisable to retreat by the direct 
road. 

Remarh. — The commanders of parties must bear in mind that there 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 425 

are few circumstances which can justify the surrender of cavahy ; proper 
precautions on the march render a surprise next to impossible ; and when 
a party of cavah-y is attacked, no matter how suddenly, or by what supe- 
riority of force, a determined and instantaneous charge will always enable 
the greater part to escape in safety. Officers and men should therefore 
always have their wits about them, and their weapons in constant readi- 
ness for use. 

§ 151. During the march, patrols are not permitted to wander out of 
the way, nor to halt to rest at their discretion. 

§ 152. To be certain that their orders are executed, the commanders 
of patrols should be alternately at the head and on the flanks ; in a word, 
everywhere, that they may see and superintend every thing for themselves. 

§ 153. Should it happen that two patrols or patrollers meet on the 
march, even if they belong to the same regiment, they should challenge 
each other, as directed in § 337. 

§ 154. During halts, the patrols continue to secure the troops against 
a sudden attack. Choosing positions from which it is easy to examine the 
country around, they halt in the same order as that in which they marched, 
and face outward. 



CHAPTER IV. 



IN REFERENCE TO REGULATING MARCHES ACCORDING TO THE 

LOCALITY. 

Of advanced guards. 

§ 155. It is but seldom that any one arm is exclusively employed when 
near the enemy ; on the contrary, it is usual to operate with a combined 
force of cavalry, infantry, and artillery, so that it may be always possible 
to employ one or the other arm, according to circumstances and the 
locality. 

§ 156. If the main body is composed of the different arms, then the 
advanced guard is similarly constituted, that it may be able to act in all 
localities. 

§ 157. The composition of such an advanced guard depends — 

1st. Upon the object and natui'e of its intended operations. During 
marches in pursuit it is reinforced by cavalry ; but if it is to make an 
obstinate resistance, it is strengthened with much infantry and artillery. 
In general, light cavalry are the best for advanced guards, wherever the 
nature of the ground permits them to operate; but infantry are necessary 
to support them. Mounted rifles and mounted engineer troops are of 
sreat service in advanced iiuards. 



426 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

2d. The composition of tlie advanced guard depends also upon the 
locality : if the ground is broken, much infantry is required ; if it is open, 
much cavalry, and, in general, light troops. 

§ 158. The order of march of an advanced guard depends, principally, 
upon its composition, the order of march of the main body, the locality', 
&c. The main rule is, that it should never be too much divided, so that 
there may always be a considerable force in hand to seek the enemy more 
boldly and detain him longer. Therefore, even when the main body 
moves in several columns, the principal part of the advanced guard 
marches on the main road, sending only small parties on the others to 
watch the enemy and detach patrols as far as possible in all directions. 
In an open, level country, the cavalry marches at the head ; in a broken 
country, there is only a small detachment of cavalry at the head, to fur- 
nish advanced detachments and patrols. An advanced detachment of 
cavalry, which sends out patrols in front and on its flanks, moves at the 
distance of a few miles in front of the advanced guard. Small detach- 
ments of cavalry move in a line with it on the other roads; also others 
on the flanks of the main advanced guard, to secure it against being 
turned. All the front and flank detachments maintain a constant mutual 
communication by means of patrols, and thus keep in sight the whole 
space in front of the main body over a great extent. But if the flank 
columns of the main body march at a great distance from the main road 
followed, by the advanced guard, then, in addition to this last, each flank 
column detaches a small advanced guard for its own security. 

§ 159. If the advanced guard is composed of different arms, its dis- 
tance from the main body depends not only upon its strength, but also 
on the following circumstances : 1. On its composition. Cavalry may 
advance much farther than infantry. 2. Upon the locality. The more 
fully the nature of the country secures the advanced guard against being 
turned, the farther may it move from the main body. 3. Upon the 
object in view. Prior to defensive combats in position, it is advantageous 
to have the advanced guard as far from the main body as possible, in 
order to secure time for making the necessary arrangements ; but if the 
main body is already concentrated for a decisive attack upon the enemy, 
it is sometimes well to be entirely without an advanced guard ; during a 
pursuit, the main body should follow the advanced guard as closel}^ as 
possible. 4. Upon the order of march of the main body. The longer 
the time needed by the main body to form in order of battle, on account 
of the intervals between the columns, the nature of the ground between 
them, the length of the columns, &c., so much farther forward should 
the advanced guard be pushed. In general, the distance of the advanced 
guard from the head of the main body should be a little greater than the 
interval between the outside columns of the main body. 



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OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 429 

§ 160. Fig. 6 gives an example of the arrangement of an advanced 
guard composed of one brigade of light cavalry, 8 battalions of infantry, 
one battalion of sappers, 6 pieces of horse artillery, and 12 pieces of foot 
artillery; the main body following in 3 columns. Disregarding minute 
details, this is established as the basis of the arrangement of an advanced 
guard, without regard to the ground. 

Whatever slight changes may be made necessary by the nature of the 
country can easily be made with the aid of a map and the special inform- 
ation obtained in other ways. 

§ 161. If the country is partially broken and obstructed, it is advan- 
tageous to have four or five companies of infantry just behind the leading- 
detachment of cavalry, to examine places that are difl&cult or dangerous 
for the latter. 

§ 102. Upon the plains the patrols arc of cavalry; in a mountainous 
region, of infantry. In the latter case, not only the advanced detach- 
ments and patrols are of infantry, but also the head and rear of every 
column ; the cavalry and artillery march in the middle, under the protec- 
tion of the infantry. 

§ 163. In passing through a village, the infantry enter it first, if there 
are any with the advanced guard; the cavalry either ride rapidly around 
it, or, according to circumstances, halt a little before reaching the village, 
and Avait until the infantry have passed through. 

§ 164. The passage of important bridges, ravines, and defiles, should 
be effected in the same manner, the infantry examining them. As soon 
as the infantry have crossed and formed on the other side, the cavalry 
send out patrols to a great distance to examine the ground in front, before 
the main body of the advanced guard begins to cross. 

The advanced guard, having crossed rapidly, forms in front of the 
passage to cover the debouche of the main body. The distance of such 
a position from the passage should be such that, in the event of being- 
attacked, the advanced guard may not be too quickly forced back upon 
the main body while debouching, and that the latter may have ample 
time to form without disorder. 

§ 165. Since attacks should be most expected when passing through 
defiles, -or when issuing from them, they should be traversed rapidly, and 
with the most extended front possible, to prevent the column from stretch- 
ing out. In passing long defiles, the troops should occasionally halt for 
a moment, to close up and re-establish order. 

§ 166. As for the rest, an advanced guard, possessing a certain degree of 
independence, without neglecting any of the precautions here laid down, 
should not be too apprehensive, and, in examining the country, ought not 
to detain itself with objects which, from their nature, cannot conceal the 
enemy in suflScient force to make him dangerous to the advanced guard. 



430 EEGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

§ 167. In very mountainous regions it is necessary to rely upon the 
infantry alone; the cavalry and train remaining in rear, and not entering 
the defiles until they have been occupied. Here the infantry patrols are 
sent out as far as possible, and occupy the heights from which the direc- 
tion of the columns may be seen, until relieved by the patrols of the 
rear guard, which is also of infantry. In this manner the cavalry, which 
the enemy would attack in such places in preference, is protected. Not 
a gorge or defile should be left unexamined; for in the mountains an 
attack may be expected at any moment. 

§ 168. In a wooded country the commander of the advanced guard 
takes nearly the same precaution as in the mountains. 

If the forest is deep, but not broad, detachments of cavalry ride along 
the skirts, which are occupied by infantry skirmishers as supports ; if the 
forest is dense, but not deep, the infantry lead. The infantry place 
themselves along the skirts of the wood on both sides of the road ; the 
cavalry then passes through at a fast trot, forms on the plain beyond, and 
there awaits the rest of the column. 

§ 169. When the road passes through a country but little obstructed 
by defiles, villages, or other obstacles to the movements of cavalry, and 
there is no infantry with the advanced guard, mounted rifles are very 
useful ; finally, the enemy, in retreating through such a country, leaves 
infantry at these obstacles to arrest the pursuit of the cavalry, and delay 
until the arrival of the infantry; in such cases mounted rifles or dis- 
mounted dragoons will produce sure results by acting against the enemy's 
infantry. 

OF THE MAIN BODY. 

§ 170. It remains to be said, in reference to this, that the nature of the 
country must determine its order of march, whether cavalry or infantry 
are to lead. If the country is broken, particularly if it is wooded, there 
is great danger in placing the cavalry at the head; for it may not only be 
unable to act, but, if forced to retreat, may carry disorder into the 
infantry following. 

The artillery should march in the midst of the other troops; but a few 
pieces may move with the head of the column, to protect it in case of 
meeting the enemy suddenly. 

§ 171. If there are infantry, then in traversing extensive forests, in 
which parties of the enemy may easily conceal themselves, the flank 
detachments and patrols of cavalry are replaced by infantry. 

OF THE REAR GUARD. 

§ 172. In § 19 the duties of a rear guard in a retreat are described as 
being important, and sometimes even more important than those of the 
advanced guard in the offensive. Therefore, not only the force but the 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 431 

composition of the rear guard should correspond to the importance of its 
duties; if the main body consists of troops of the diiferent arms, the rear 
guard should be composed in like manner. 

§ 173. Its order of march must depend not only upon the locality, the 
number, direction, and separation of the roads, and the degree of security 
of the flanks, but also upon the order of march of the main body, and the 
manner in which the pursuing enemy operates. Frequently the march 
of the rear guard becomes a fighting retreat. If the enemy does not 
follow directly on its heels, its arrangements will generally be nearly the 
same as those of an advanced guard in the ofiensive; but in this case it 
is necessary to turn the closest attention to the roads on the flanks, be- 
cause the pui'suing enemy usually endeavors to turn the retreating rear 
guard with a part of his force, in order to keep it constantly in retreat 
and prevent it from holding the positions it has selected. For this reason, 
there should be on the flank roads not only patrols from the rear guard, 
but parties strong enough to hold the enemy in check. 

§ 174. In districts where there are extensive plains, the rear of the 
rear guard is reinforced by all its cavalry, so that the infantry may move 
forward to occupy any hills, woods, or other favorable positions. 

§ 175. As in a mountainous, wooded, or broken country, the cavalry 
of the advanced guard marches in rear of the other troops, so, in a rear 
guard retreating through a similar country, the cavalry forms the head 
of the column, marching under the protection of the infantry, with which 
latter there is only a small party of cavalry for sending rapid information 
of the approach of the enemy. 

§ 176. It is stated in § 115 that, to preserve the requisite good order, 
the retreat of the rear guard should not be by all the troops at once, but 
by alternate portions, so that one part may fight to protect the i-etreat 
of the other. According to this, upon approaching a defile or bridge, 
around which the cavalry cannot pass, the greatest part of it should be 
sent on early to pass through. 

A few guns are placed in front of such obstacles, under the protection 
of a party of infantry, to keep the enemy at a distance, while the rest of 
the infantry and artillery pass the defile, availing themselves of all the 
heights on both sides to protect those in retreat against the attack of the 
enemy, and to cover the flanks. Therefore, the ground should be ex- 
amined early, that it may be occupied betimes for defence by infintry 
and artillery. After having passed the defile, the cavalry forms in order 
of battle, out of cannon range. 

If the enemy endeavors to pursue the rear guard beyond the defile, the 
cavalry should, if the ground permits, stop or delay his pursuit by an 
attack upon the front and flanks of the head of his column, so as to give 
the infantry and artillery time to gain the necessary ground. In such 

26 



432 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

cases, tlwre is an advantage in having passed the defile, so as to attack 
with a superior front the head of the enemy's column as he debouches. 

§ 177. If a village is to be traversed, it is first occupied by a suflBcient 
force of infantry, and the cavalry then either passes around it, or, which 
is quicker, rides rapidly through it, if this can be done without masking 
the fire of the infantry. Having passed beyond the village, the cavalry 
and horse artillery come into position to cover the retreat of the infantry. 

§ 178. In a retreat, dismounted rifles or dragoons, availing themselves 
of the obstacles of the ground, may arrest the pursuit of the enemy, with- 
out fearing, as in the case of infantry, to remain behind the main body 
of the rear guard. 

§ 179. Finally, if the enemy acts imprudently, the rear guard may form 
ambuscades for him, or force him to slacken the pursuit by resuming the 
offensive for a time. 

§ 180. The commander of the rear guard should always regulate him- 
self upon the movements of the main body, always holding every position 
as obstinately as possible, lest a premature retreat on his part should bring 
the enemy suddenly upon the main body. 



PART II. 

PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN CAMPS* FOR 
SECURITY AGAINST THE ENEMY. 

CHAPTER I. . 

DUTIES OF ALL PARTS OF THE OUTPOSTS. 

Article 1. 
Of the outposts in general. 

§ 181. The outposts are detachments upon whom is imposed the duty 
of securing the other troops against sudden attacks. 

§ 182. They are independent of, and in addition to, the camp and 
quarter guards, whose duty it is to watch over the interior order and 
police of the camp. 

§ 183. Light cavalry are employed on outpost duty wherever the ground 
permits them to act; in cases of absolute necessity, the outposts consist of 
infantry. 

(*) The term camp is here used in its most general sense, including all the arrange- 
ments of the troops when halted, whether in tents, huts, bivouac, or villages, provided 
they are not in cantonments or winter quarters. The term encampment refers particu- 
larly to a camp of tents or huts. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 433 

§ 184. The outposts consist of: 

1. A chain of double vedettes. 

2. Pickets, which are the immediate supports of the vedettes. 

3. Main guards, placed as supports in rear of the pickets. 

§ 185. If the outposts are pushed very far to the front, or if the nature 
of the ground is such as to render their retreat difficult, parties, callea 
reserves of the oufjyosts, are placed between the outposts and the troops 
guarded, to serve as a reserve and support for the former. 

§ 186. The outposts should enclose all the places and observe all the 
roads by which the enemy can approach the camp guarded. 

§ 187. The chain of outposts is placed in front of the general posi- 
tion of the troops, so as to intersect all the roads leading towards the 
enemy. It forms a curved line, falling back on the flanks. 

§ 188. The outposts should be pushed so far to the front that, while in 
no danger of being cut off, they may give timely notice of the enemy's 
approach, and keep him long enough in check to enable the troops guarded 
to prepare to receive him. 

For this purpose the chain of mounted vedettes is usually placed at not 
more than three miles in front of the camp; the pickets not more than 
three-fourths of a mile in rear of the vedettes; the main guards at about 
the same distance behind the pickets. 

§ 189. The interval between the pairs of vedettes composing the chain 
should be such that in the daytime they can see each other, and in the 
night hear every thing that happens between them. 

§ 190. The object of the pickets and main guards being merely to receive 
the chain, they are composed of small numbers of men. Therefore, a picket 
consists of about a platoon, and a main guard of about a company. 

§ 191. The commander-in-chief determines approximately the general 
direction and extent of the chain ; in conformity therewith, there are de- 
tailed the number of men necessary to guard the space designated. The 
subordinate commanders carry out the details as follows : 

§ 192. A field officer, or captain, commanding two companies, conducts 
them to the place where the main guard is to be posted; leaving one com- 
pany there, he takes the other to form the pickets and vedettes, and 
accompanies one of the platoons himself, to superintend the proper posting 
of the vedettes. Separating gradually, — one moving to the right, the other 
to the left, — the two platoons continue to move on until the interval 
between them is about three- fourths of a mile, and their distance from the 
main guard about the same ; they then halt. The commander of each 
platoon, having cut off 6 men for patrols and carrying reports, divides the 
rest of his platoon into 3 reliefs. 

He then conducts the first relief to the chain. The non-commissioned 
officer designated to post the vedettes accompanies the relief; if there is 



434 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

but one officer with the platoon, the senior non-commissioned officer takes 
command of the picket until the return of the officer. 

The commander of the picket having conducted the first relief to one 
flank of the line he is to occupy, posts the vedettes so that they may be in 
full communication with the vedettes of the neighboring pickets. The 
captain of the company which furnishes the pickets will command the 
more important of the two pickets. 

§ 193. Supposing each platoon to consist of 30 men, the main guard 
will consist of 60, and each picket, deducting the six men for patrols, of 
24 men; each picket will thus furnish 4 pairs of vedettes, the two 
together 8 pairs ; supposing the intervals between the pairs of vedettes to 
be from 300 to 500 paces, the line occupied will be from 2,400 to 4,000 
paces. In this manner two companies, each 60 strong, will furnish a 
main guard and two pickets, which may watch a space of about 2 miles. 
(See fig. 7.) 

Article 2. 

Duties of the vedettes of the advanced chain. 

§ 194. In each pair of vedettes, one is designated as the chief vedette. 
Both remain mounted ; the one in front has his carbine advanced, or pistol 
drawn ; the vedette in rear is permitted to sling his carbine. 

§ 195. For the purpose of challenging all who approach the chain, the 
vedettes are furnished with the countersign ; they are to remember it and 
keep it secret. 

§ 196. They must be always vigilant and cautious ; therefore, every 
thing which may in the least distract their attention is strictly forbidden, 
such as talking, smoking, whistling, singing, &c. ; even horses that are 
much in the habit of neighing are not placed in the chain. 

§ 197. They must keep in view all the space between them, so that 
individuals may not cross clandestinely. 

Therefore, one man in each pair should, in turn, look and listen care- 
fully, lest any thing occur in the direction of the enemy or of the next 
pairs ; the other man places himself some paces behind the first, to relieve 
the tension of sight and hearing. 

During the day, in open country, they merely look towards the neigh- 
boring pairs; in a rough, obstructed country, at night, or in a fog, when it 
is impossible to see the next pairs, one man, in his turn, carrying his 
weapons as prescribed for the front vedette in § 194, must constantly ride 
along the chain to the next pair, or until meeting one of its members. 
When they are posted in sight of the enemy, or very near him, they may 
give each other preconcerted signals, (such as tapping the carbine, or some 
such noise,) being careful, however, that the signals employed are of such 
a nature as not to attract the attention of the enemy. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF AVAR. 



435 



§ 198. Upon observing any thing whatever in the direction of the 
enemy, as, for example, extraordinary movements, dust, noise, kindling oi 



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ArraDgement of the chain of vedettes, pickets, and main guard furnished by two 

companies. 

extinguishing fires, changes in his outposts, drawing them in or rein- 
forcing tliem, &c., the chief vedette sends in the other to inform the com- 
mander of the picket, remaining himself on the spot to continue watch- 
ing what attracted his attention. 



436 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

In the daytime, wlien in full view of the jjicket, instead of one of the 
vedettes riding in to report, they may, in certain cases, act as follows : If 
any thing suspicious is observed in the direction of the enemy, such as 
dust, glittering of arms, &c., one of the vedettes will move his horse in a 
circle at a walk ; upon this, the commander of the picket will take 3 or 4 
men and at once ride to the vedette to examine the matter for himself If 
the vedettes discover a party of the enemy advancing towards them, but at 
a great distance, one of them will move his horse in a circle at a trot, on 
which the officer will act as just prescribed. If the vedettes discover a 
party of the enemy coming towards them, and not more than a mile oflF, 
one of them will at once move his horse in a circle at a gallop, on which 
the officer will act according to circumstances. 

By both the vedettes riding in a circle at the same time, in the same 
and opposite directions, and at the different gaits, the number of signals 
may be much increased. 

§ 199. Unless they have special orders to the contrary, the vedettes 
permit no one to cross the chain towards the enemy, except officers' de- 
tachments and patrols personally known to them. If they observe any 
one attempting to steal over, they detain him until the arrival of the 
relief or patrol, and then send him to the commander of the picket. 

§ 200. If the commander of the picket approaches in the daytime, 
they do not challenge him, but both vedettes advance carbine or draw 
pistol, and the chief vedette alone reports whether any thing worthy of 
the slightest attention has been observed. 

§ 201. If any person, not personally known to the vedettes, approaches 
along the chain, the front vedette halts him at 50 paces from the post, by 
crying, in a low tone, ^^Halt! Who comes there?" If the reply is satis- 
factory, and the orders are to pass persons with the countei'sign, he then 
cries, ^^ Advance, and give ike countersign!" or, if it is a party that has 
approached, he directs one person to advance and give the countersign, 
not allowing him to approach nearer than ten paces for the purpose. If 
the party challenged does not reply, and persists in attempting to pass the 
chain, the front vedette cocks his piece, goes to meet him, aiming at him, 
halts close to him, and twice repeats the challenge, '■'^ Halt I Who comes 
there ?" If the person does not reply to the third challenge, the vedette 
shoots him. 

Remarh. — It is to be understood that vedettes fire only upon persons 
who are armed, or resist ; with regard to others who approach the chain 
without the countersign, they are merely stopped, and treated as directed 
in the following section. 

§ 202. If the person approaching has the countersign, then, in the day- 
time, the vedette allows him to pass, but not nearer than 10 paces to the 
post 3 if he has not the countersign, the vedette directs him to halt at 50 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 4^7 

paces from the post, and turn his back to it, (if he is on horseback, he is 
made to dismount,) and awaits the arrival of the relief or patrol, to whom 
he turus him over as a prisoner, to be taken to the commander of the 
picket. 

§ 203. In the night, when it is impossible to recognize the faces of 
those approaching, the vedettes act in the following manner : If the reply 
to the challenge, '■'^ Halt I IF/to comes there P" is, a general, an o£icer, 
patrol, relief, or rounds, the countersign is demanded, as already ex- 
plained, and if it is properly given, the party is allowed to pass. If the 
party does not know the countersign, one of the sentinels at once rides to 
the commander of the picket and receives his orders. But other military 
employes, and enlisted men, even if they have the countersign, are not 
permitted to cross the chain at night, but are treated as is directed in the 
preceding section for people who do not know the countersign in the day. 

§ 204. Whilst the chief vedette interrogates the person who has ap- 
proached the chain, the other cocks his piece, and watches in all direc- 
tions with redoubled attention. 

§ 205. If a flag of truce, or, in general, any one whose business is of 
such a nature as not to permit him to await the arrival of a relief or 
patrol, approaches the chain, the chief vedette sends in the other to 
report to the commander of the picket. 

Flags of truce are not received at night, except under very peculiar 
circumstances. 

§ 206. If any one whatsoever approaches the post from the direction 
of the enemy, even if of their own command, the vedettes halt them, 
and do not allow them to approach within 50 paces; the junior vedette 
then rides in to report to the commander of the picket. 

The only exception to this rule is the case of a returning patrol, if it 
consists of men of the same regiment as the vedettes, and if the latter 
recognize the persons of the officer and men composing it. 

§ 207. If deserters from the enemy approach, the vedette halts them 
also at 50 paces, orders them to lay down their arms, to dismount, if 
mounted, and to retire a little beyond the 50 paces. 

Then the junior vedette rides in to report to the commander of the 
picket, while the other, cocking his piece, watches the new arrivals. 

§ 208. If the vedettes discover the approach of the enemy, they at 
once inform the commander of the picket ; but if he appears suddenly in 
front of the chain, they give the alarm by firing. They should fire only 
when he approaches resolutely : to fire without necessity, and without 
being satisfied that it is really the enemy, would be merely to create 
useless alarm. 

§ 209. Upon hearing a shot, the other vedettes redouble their vigilance 
and attention, exerting themselves to discover what is going on where 



438 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

the shot was fired, but not leaving their posts without receiving a signal 
or special orders to do so, unless driven in, when they will rally on the 
picket. 

Article 3. 

Duties of the commanders of tlie pickets. 

§ 210. With every picket there must be an officer and a trumpeter. 

§ 211. The officer detailed for duty with a picket should have the 
parole, watchvcord, and countersign for the day. 

Upon reaching his post, he communicates the countersign to all the 
men ; he gives the watchword only to the non-commissioned officers who 
are to be sent out with patrols and reliefs. 

§ 212. Having conducted his platoon to the position it is to occupy, 
he acts as directed in § 192, and posts the 1st relief in person. The non- 
commissioned officer who is to post the next relief rides with him; if 
there is no other officer present, the senior non-commissioned officer re- 
maining with the picket sees that all the men remain mounted and fully 
ready to move, until the return of the commander. 

§ 213. The first relief is posted as in time of peace. 

§ 214. When posting each vedette, the commander of the picket gives 
them their instructions where to stand, and to what their attention should 
be chiefly directed ; he points out the direction in which they are to 
retreat in case of necessity, and designates the number of each post. He 
designates the most reliable and experienced man of each pair of vedettes 
as chief vedette. 

§ 215. In arranging the intervals between the pairs of vedettes, he 
should endeavor to post them in positions whence they can see as far as 
possible in all directions and at the same time be as little conspicuous to 
the enemy as practicable ; for this purpose it is best to place them on the 
heights during the day, and behind the hill, at its foot, during the night. 

§ 216. The intervals between the pairs should be such that they can 
see all the ground between them ; no precise rules can be laid down in 
respect to this, as in some cases the chain will be close, and in others 
scattered; as in an open country there is no advantage in an unneces- 
sarily close chain, so in an obstructed country it is improper to place the 
vedettes far apart. In some localities it may be necessary to post them 
not more than 100 paces apart, while in others the intervals may be 500 
paces. 

§ 217. If the chain, or a portion of it, is placed in advance of a stream, 
ravine, wide ditch, or other obstacle, the commander of the picket must 
see that the passages across are in good condition, so that in case of 
attack the vedettes can easily rally on the picket, and the latter have free 
communication with its vedettes. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF AVAR. 439 

§ 218. It is also absolutely necessary that the commander of the picket 
should see that no pair of vedettes is entirely composed of men ignorant 
of the duty, but that as far as possible one of them should be an expe- 
rienced and reliable soldier, to be designated as chief vedette; he should 
also watch that no near-sighted person is placed on the chain during the 
day, nor any one dull of hearing in the night. 

§ 219. Upon posting the chain of vedettes, it becomes evident whether 
the picket can furnish a sufficient number of men to keep one-third on 
duty ; if there is a deficiency in the chain, the requisite number of men 
are taken from the picket, which is reinforced from the main guard. If 
there are more men than necessary, the commander of the picket dis- 
poses of the supernumeraries in accordance with the orders of the com- 
mander of the main guard. 

§ 220. Having posted the 1st relief of vedettes, the commander returns 
to his picket, and places it in the best position ; that is to say, one con- 
venient for receiving and supporting the vedettes, not visible from the 
side of the enemy, and which the latter cannot pass around ; it is selected 
in preference on a road leading towards the enemy, and especially at cross- 
roads. 

§ 221. At the picket a sentinel is posted, mounted or dismounted 
according to the locality, and so placed that he can see the whole or the 
greater part of the chain, and observe what occurs there. If this sentinel 
is mounted, he carries his weapons as directed for the front vedette in 
§ 194. 

§ 222. After this, the commander orders the men to dismount; during 
the day, one-half of the men at a time may be allowed to unbit and feed 
their horses. In the night, all the horses ought to be bitted, and one- 
half the men in perfect readiness to mount. One-half of the men may 
be allowed to sleep in the daytime. Under certain circumstances it may 
be necessary to keep the whole or a part of the picket mounted during 
the night. 

§ 223. Having arranged the vedettes and picket, the commander reports 
his dispositions, as well as every thing he has observed, to the commander 
of the main guard, unless the latter was present at the time. 

§ 224. All reports concerning the outposts are made either vei-bally, 
through a non-commissioned officer, or in pencil, with the most concise 
expressions, and not observing the ordinary forms. Here the main point 
is, that the report is well founded and clearly expressed. The report 
should be numbered, state what party it refers to, and the date and hour 
when sent. 

§ 225. For patrols and orderlies, 6 men are detailed from the picket, 
independently of those who supply the vedettes; two of these, besides 



4-;0 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

any already sent out, should always be in readiness to start in an instant ; 
the others may rest, and in the day unbit their horses. 

§ 226. The pickets should always be vigilant, careful, quiet, and ready 
to move. The arms ought to be loaded, the men fully accoutred, all the 
horses saddled, and the whole picket in an effective condition ; the horses 
are sent to water in parties of two or three at a time, under charge of a 
non-commissioned officer, and take every thing with them. The horses 
should not be hobbled or picketed. The use of fire is forbidden, without 
special permission. The men change their dress, from the uniform to the 
overcoat, and the reverse, one at a time. Under peculiar circumstances, 
in the night, one-half the men (by turns) may be allowed to take off their 
shakos and sleep, but the rest must be on the alert, or stand to horse. 

§ 227. When a relief is sent out, which habitually is done every two 
hours, but oftener in bad weather, severe cold, or after great fatigue, the 
whole picket mounts, and so remains until the return of the relief. 

§ 228. It being easy for the enemy to approach the chain during the 
night, in order to make a sudden attack at daybreak, the whole picket 
should be mounted some time before dawn. 

§ 229. If it appears to be necessary to draw in the vedettes upon the 
picket, or to close in the vedettes on each other for the night, then, by 
the special order of the commander of the outposts, the chain removes 
to its new position upon the approach of twilight. The decrease of the 
intervals between the pairs of vedettes is regulated by the darkness of the 
night and the weather; in a dark night, with heavy rain, a thick fog, or, 
most especially, with a wind blowing towards the enemy, this interval is 
made very small. The extra men needed in these cases are supplied by 
the main guards or the reserve of the outposts. At daybreak, the chain 
again advances to the position designated for it during the day. 

§ 230. If the ground occupied by the vedettes during the day is so 
advantageous that it would be injurious to throw them back at night, 
and it is necessary to decrease their distance from the picket, then the 
chain is left where it stands, the intervals between the vedettes are di- 
minished, and the picket moved up closer to the chain. 

§ 231. Besides the original posting of the chain, the commander of the 
picket should also superintend its removal to the night position ; and if 
the vedettes were originally posted at night, he should be present when 
they take up their new position for the day, also when his picket is re- 
lieved by other troops. The other reliefs of the vedettes not only 
may, but ought to be made by non-commissioned officers, so as not to 
take the commander from his picket, where his presence may be very 
necessary. 

§ 232. All the men of a relief, while marching, carry their weapons as 
prescribed for the front vedette in § 194, and the act of relieving is per- 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF AVAR. 4I1 

formed as in time of peace; the instructions are given quietly, and all 
orders in a low tone. 

§ 233. The returning relief is received at the picket as in time of 
peace, with the difference that the whole picket is mounted. 

§ 234, When the rounds arrive at a picket, they are received as di- 
rected below in Chapter III., on visiting the ouf^iosts; in this case, all 
orders are given in a low tone, and the necessary quietness is preserved. 

§ 235. At the proper hours, the commander of the picket will send 
out patrols to verify the exactness of the vedettes, (see Chapter III. ;) he 
should also despatch the reliefs punctually, and report to the commander 
of the main guard afterevery relief, although there may be nothing new. 

§ 236. When a report comes in from the chain of the arrival of men 
without the countersign, or in the night of those who (see § 203) are not 
entitled to pass with it, the commander of the picket at once sends a non- 
commissioned officer and two men to bring them in. Upon their arrival, 
he demands the parole, watchivord, and countersign; and if all their 
replies are correct, he permits them to pass freely ; but if they do not 
know the parole, he sends them, under guard, to the commander of the 
main guard. 

§ 237. If a flag of truce or deserters from the enemy arrive at the 
chain, the commander of the picket goes there himself, taking with him 
a non-commissioned officer and some privates. When near the flag of 
truce, he demands who he is, by whom and to whom sent; and then, 
having blindfolded him, directs the non-commissioned officer and two 
privates to conduct him to the commander of the main guard. If de- 
serters have arrived, he directs his escort to take their arms, and bring 
them within the chain ; he then calls up one of the deserters and ques- 
tions him, and having ordered them all to be searched, lest they carry 
concealed weapons, he sends them to the commander of the main guard, 
with an escort in proportion to their number. 

§ 288. If a report arrives from the chain of any thing important in 
the direction of the enemy, or of his appearance, the commander of the 
picket verifies it in person, at once sends a report to the commander of 
the main guard, and informs the neighboring pickets ; in the mean time 
the picket mounts. 

§ 239. If it appears that the enemy, in small force, merely alarms the 
outposts, the vedettes commence firing, the pickets advance, and either 
endeavor to overthrow the enemy's detachment or to keep him in check 
until the arrival of the main guard or the reserve of the outposts. 

§ 240. If it appears that the enemy is not in superior force, then the 
pickets should attack and drive him off; afterwards they resume their 
original positions. 

§ 241. If it is ascertained that the enemy attacks vigorously in force, 



412 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

and has already approached so near the chain that the vedettes are in 
danger of being cut off, the commander of the picket gives them the sig- 
nal to retreat, and, using them as a chain of skirmishers, he begins, if it 
is necessary, his retreat upon the main guard, again reporting the state of 
affairs to the commander of the latter, and the nearest pickets. 

§ 242. While retreating, he should endeavor to delay the enemy as 
long as possible, also to observe, as well as he can, his force, kind of troops, 
and direction, taking care, however, not to be cut off. 

§ 243. In the night the enemy does not see the strength of the picket, 
and moves over ground with which he is unacquainted, while the picket 
knows the ground. Therefore, it is sometimes advantageous for cavalry 
pickets, in the night, to commence their retreat by attacking : if the 
attack fails, nothing is lost, and the picket falls back upon the main guard; 
if it succeeds, even if it is impossible to drive the enemy off, his pursuit 
is at least delayed, and his force more closely examined. 

§ 244. Upon hearing firing at the chain, the commander of the picket 
at once sends to learn the cause, and causes the picket to mount : if the 
enemy really attacks, the commander acts as directed above ; but if the 
firing was only upon individuals, he at once sends word to the main guard 
and neighboring pickets, to prevent unnecessary alarm. 

§ 245. The other pickets mount at once upon hearing fixing at any 
part of the chain ; and if the picket attacked retreats, they regulate their 
movements on it, so as to keep up the communication and not be cut off, 
and at once inform the next picket on the opposite side. 

§ 246. After every skirmish the commanders of the pickets make an 
inspection to ascertain whether any of their men are captured or missing; 
if there are any such cases, they at once inform the commander of the 
main guard. Until the countersign is changed, the commanders of the 
pickets forbid the vedettes to allow any one to cross the chain, even with 
the old countersign ; this they do in all cases when a man is missing from 
the vedettes or pickets, even if there has been no skirmish. 

Article 4. 

Duties of the commander of the main guard. 

§ 247. The main guard is commanded by a field officer or captain; 
there must always be a trumpeter with him. 

§ 248. He communicates to the commanders of the pickets ih.Q parole, 
watchword, and cotmtersign. 

§ 249. Having reached the position designated for the main guard, its 
commander details and sends forward the platoons that are to supply the 
pickets and vedettes. Having turned over the command of the main 
guard to the next in rank of those remaining with it, he goes himself 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 443 

to the advanced chain, to superintend the posting of the pickets and 
vedettes; he gives all the parties their instructions, how they are to act 
upon the appearance of the enemy, and how in case of retreat; he care- 
fully examines the ground. The main guard remains mounted until the 
vedettes and pickets are posted. 

§ 250. If it is impossible for the commander of the main guard to be 
present at the original posting of the pickets and vedettes, he should at 
least ride over all the ground committed to his charge. 

§ 251. If in any of the pickets one relief is short of men, the com- 
mander of the main guard supplies the deficiency from it; if a picket has 
more men than enough, he either directs the superfluous men to join the 
main guard, or sends them to reinforce another picket which has not men 
enough, or, finally, directs the picket which has the most men to occupy 
a greater portion of the chain than its neighbors. 

Remark. — In these cases, it is absolutely necessary to bear in mind 
that the parties sent to the outposts must be units, so that their interior 
organization may not be disturbed; especially that two companies of the 
same regiment must furnish a main guard and the corresponding pickets 
and vedettes. From this there will result greater unity in the conduct 
of the outposts, and each officer, being with his own men, can assign them 
to the particular duty best suited to the character and capacity of each. 

§ 252. In the disposition of the vedettes and pickets, the commander 
of the main guard should look to the connection of the whole chain and 
all the pickets under his charge, and particularly to the facility of com- 
munication with the neighboring main guards. 

§ 253. Having returned to the main guard, its commander arranges it 
as follows: the guard dismounts; during the day one-half, by turns, unbit 
and feed their horses, holding them by the reins ; the rest of the men 
remain with their horses, in perfect readiness, some 20 to 50 paces in 
front of those who are feeding. During the night all the horses must be 
bitted, and one-half the men perfectly ready to mount. 

§ 254. Having arranged the main guard, its commander reports to the 
commander of the outposts his arrangements, and every thing of im- 
portance that he has observed. 

Remark. — Sketching the ground occupied by the outposts is a part 
of the duty of the staff officers ; but if there are none present, the com- 
mander of the main guard should annex to his report a rough pencil 
sketch of the ground, for the better elucidation of his arrangements. 

§ 255. A sentinel is placed at the main guard, as at the picket, (§ 221;) 
he challenges all who approach in the same manner as the vedettes. All 
other precautions are observed by the main guard as by the pickets. (§ 226.) 

§ 256. If it is necessary to cook in a covered place, and the commander 
of the outposts has given permission to use a fire, the men do not leave 



444 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

their position to eat, but the food is brought to them, and they eat, a few 
at a time. 

§ 257. The commander of the main guard receives the rounds in the 
same manner as the commander of a picket does. (§ 234.) 

§ 258. If men without the countersign, flags of truce, or deserters 
from the enemy, are sent in from the pickets, the commander of the main 
guard interrogates them, and then sends them, under guard, to the 
reserve, if there is any, or direct to the commander of the outposts. 

§ 259. Upon receiving from the pickets news of the approach of the 
enemy, or on hearing firing at thfe chain, the commander of the main 
guard at once sends an officer, or a sergeant, with two men, to ascertain 
what is taking place, and reports to the commander of the outposts. That 
part of the main guard whose horses are bitted mount and ride to the 
front to receive or support the retreating pickets in case of necessity; in 
the mean time the other portion prepare, and, if the firing continues, join 
the advanced party. 

§ 260. If the commander of the main guard is satisfied that the enemy 
attacks really and decidedly, he reports again to the commander of the 
outposts, and acts according to the preceding instructions; that is, he 
either endeavors to resist the enemy and hold his ground, or keeps up the 
firing and retards his advance, or simply falls back upon the reserves. 

§ 261. In the night, the main guard may, as in the case of a picket, 
(§ 243,) try an immediate attack; but this should be made by only a part 
of the main guard, holding the rest in reserve to support the attacking 
party. 

§ 262. The commander of each main guard should constantly keep 
up his connection with his pickets and the nearest main guards by patrols; 
if the enemy advance, he must regulate his movements in conformity 
with those of the other main guards, so that, being as nearly as possible 
on the same line, they may be in a condition to render mutual assistance. 

§ 263. The commander of a main guard should be very careful as to 
his reports; upon receiving any news about the enemy from the pickets, 
he should endeavor to verify it in person; if that is impracticable, it is 
best to send to the commander of the outposts the original report received 
from the picket. 

§ 264. If the same two companies remain upon outpost duty for several 
days, the pickets are usually relieved every 24 hours. It is best to relieve 
them in the morning, that the new pickets may be able to see the country. 
If the two companies are detailed for 24 hours only, the pickets may be 
relieved during the day, especially if they have been alarmed and have 
not had time to unbit their horses. Such reliefs should be eff'ected one 
or two hours before sunset, to give the new reliefs time enough to become 
acquainted with the ground. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 445 



Article 5. 
The reserves of the outposts. 
§ 265. These may be employed with two objects: 

1. To facilitate the retreat of the outposts, if they are very distant 
from the camp; or, 

2. To retard the advance of the enemy if the outposts are close in. 

In the first case, the reserve need not be very strong; if the ground 
permits the action of cavalry, it is composed of that arm in preference; 
from two. to four companies or more may be detailed for the service. In 
the second case, the composition of the reserve depends upon the ground 
and the length of time it is desired to detain the enemy; in localities at 
all favorable to infantry, the reserve is composed of that arm, and it is 
of cavalry only on perfectly open plains; in this last case, the deficiency 
in defensive strength is supplied by the addition of horse artillery. 

§ 266. In general a reserve of the outposts is detailed only for the pro- 
tection of a considerable body of troops, as, for instance, 3 or 4 divisions. 
For detachments consisting only of a division or so, there is no reserve 
of the outposts; the detachment itself constitutes the reserve. 

§ 267. The bivouac of the reserve of the outposts is selected as near 
as possible to water, wood, straw, forage, &c.; but in no case should any 
military advantages be lost sight of, they being much more important in 
such a case than any considerations of mere convenience. 

§ 268. An inlying picket, of from i to J of the entire reserve, is de- 
tailed, which should be perfectly ready to mount, to support the outposts 
if necessary. The inlying picket is placed a little in advance of the rest, 
and acts as the guard of the artillery, if there is any ; its men should wear 
their accoutrements, and have their horses constantly saddled and bitted. 

§ 269. The rest of the horses are not unsaddled, but stand at the picket- 
ropes, or are hobbled, except the horses of the guns, which are fed in 
harness, and are unhitched only to go to water, and that by turns; the 
caisson-horses may be unhitched. 

§ 270. The reserve always bivouacs in order of battle, — that is, with the 
companies in line; the guns ought to be in position, in full readiness for 
action, a little in advance. If the reserve is partly composed of infantry, 
the cavalry is so placed that the party standing to horse may be covered 
by the infantry. 

§ 271. The arms should be loaded. The men change their dress, and 
unsaddle to examine their horses' backs, a few at a time; in a company 
by section, in a regiment by companies. 

The men who are reposing may take off" their shakos, but not their 
accoutrements. 



446 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

§ 272. The use of fire is allowed, unless peculiar circumstances render 
it improper. 

§ 273. The reserve secures itself by camp and quarter guards, posted 
as in time of peace. The duty in the reserve is performed as in ordinary 
bivouacs; guards and sentinels present arms as usual, but no signals by 
drum or trumpet are allowed. 

§ 274. When the outposts take up their positions, if it becomes ne- 
cessary to reinforce any of the main guards, or to establish new pickets, 
it is done from the reserve. 

§ 275. The commander of the outposts is habitually with the reserve; 
therefore, all reports from the main guards and independent pickets are 
sent thither, that its movements may be regulated in conformity with the 
reports received. 

§ 276. When the commander of the reserve receives a report of the 
approach of the enemy, he acts according to circumstances; that is, he 
either sends a reinforcement to the pickets, or advances to support them 
with the whole reserve, or joining them himself does every thing that 
is necessary or possible. It is the duty of the reserve to prevent the 
enemy from falling suddenly in force upon the main body, and to use 
every exertion to retard his advance, in order to afford the main body 
time to prepare to receive him, and take the measures necessary under 
the circumstances. The more vigorously the enemy attacks, the more 
stubbornly must the reserve resist him. 

§ 277. The troops composing the reserve may relieve the main guards 
and independent pickets; this relief is effected once or twice in 24 hours. 
The reserve itself is relieved by the special order of the commander of 
the main body. 

Article 6. 

Independent pickets. 

§ 278. If there is near the advanced ( Lain any point the occupation 
of which is necessary or very advantageous, — for example, if it will 
strengthen a flank of the chain not sufficiently secured by the nature of 
the ground, if it commands an extensive view, or if the enemy must 
necessarily pass over it, and its distance is such that the chain cannot 
be extended to it without a considerable increase in the number of men, — 
then this point is occupied by a special detachment, called an iAdejjendent 
picket. 

§ 279. They are sent out from the nearest main guard, or from the 
reserve of the outposts, and are under the orders of the commander of 
the outposts. They are posted as the ordinary pickets, with the difference 
that their vedettes are solely for their own security, and are so placed as 
to prevent the enemy from attacking the picket unawares. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 447 

§ 280. Not having a direct connection with the other parties, they 
must maintain it by means of patrols, and should also send patrols in 
the direction of the enemy; therefore the strength of an independent 
picket will be determined by the indispensable number of vedettes and 
patrols to be furnished. For example, if it is necessary to post two pairs 
of vedettes and one sentinel at the picket, and to send out patrols on two 
roads leading towards the enemy, and on one towards the nearest picket, 
then, each patrol consisting of two men, there will be 11 men in each 
relief, or 33 privates in the whole picket. 

§ 281. The greater the distance of an independent picket from the 
other parties of the outposts, the stronger should it be. In all cases it 
should have a secure retreat. 

§ 282. It is the duty of independent, as of ordinary, pickets, to be 
always prudent, to watch the enemy, to obtain information of his nearest 
parties and distant movements; but as they are more exposed than the 
others to be attacked and cut off, they should redouble their vigilance 
and precautions. 

Article 7. 
The general duties of all parts of the outposts. 

§ 283. Precaution and indefatigable vigilance are the first duties of all 
parts of the outposts. Independently of the security of the outposts 
themselves, this duty assumes a peculiar importance from the fact that 
upon its fulfilment depend the tranquillity, safety, and sometimes the 
existence of the troops guarded. 

§ 284. If the positions of the outposts are not already occupied by our 
own troops, the parties detailed for outpost duty will march to their posts 
with all the usual military precautions; that is, with advanced, flank, and 
rear patrols. Besides this, it is well, upon approaching the ground, to 
send out small patrols in all directions, to examine the country and ascer- 
tain whether the enemy is concealed In the vicinity. It is safer not to 
commence posting the chain until the return of the patrols; at all events, 
not until they have occupied points whence they can see for a long dis- 
tance In all directions. 

§ 2Wb. At the outposts it is necessary to preserve quietness, and to 
avoid every thing which might discover them to the enemy. For this 
reason the use of trumpet signals Is forbidden, except in case of a skir- 
mish ; directions, orders, and challenges are given in a low tone ; the use 
of fire is prohibited, except at the reserve, and is permitted there only 
when there Is no particular reason for forbidding it. 

§ 286. Every commander despatching a party for outpost duty under 
his orders must give its chief detailed instructions ; he must satisfy him- 
self that the instructions are fully understood, and must exercise the 



448 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

greatout personal vigilauee iu watching over their execution by liis sub- 
ordinates. 

§ 287. If it is impossible to carry out the instructions fully, the sub- 
ordinate must at once report to his superior, explaining the cause of the 
impossibility. 

§ 288. The gradation of subordination is as follows : the vedettes are 
immediately subordinate to the pickets from which they are detached ; 
the pickets to their main guards, the main guards and independent pickets 
to the reserve of the outposts. The commander of the reserve is imme- 
diately subordinate to the commander of the outposts; the latter to the 
commander of the advanced guard. 

§ 289. The commander of every post should at once report to his 
immediate superior, and, if necessary, to the commanders of the nearest 
parties, every thing he has observed in person, or learned through his 
subordinates, especially what refers to the movements of the enemy. 

§ 290. The subordinate should always endeavor to verify the information 
in person, and then make his report; always remembering that an un- 
founded report may produce serious consequences to the whole army. 

§ 291. If it is impossible for him to verify the information in person, 
ho should forward to his superior the original report received. 

§ 292. Reports should be written clearly and with precision, especially 
with regard to the force of the enemy, noting not only his numbers, but 
of what arms, and the direction in which he marches. In reports positive 
facts should be distinguished from probabilities, — noting the degree of 
confidence to be reposed in the latter. 

§ 293. If it is unnecessary to forward the original report received, it 
is preserved until, by the progress of events, it has lost all importance 
and significance. 

§ 294. All reports to the commanders of main guards are of especial 
importance, and those to the commander of the outposts still more so. 
Every exaggerated or ill-founded report renders it necessary to turn out 
and fatigue the troops uselessly; on the contrary, contempt for the 
enemy, and tardiness in reporting, may not only compromise the one 
making the report, but even endanger the security of the army and place 
it in a precarious situation. 

§ 295. It is the duty of every party of the outposts to preserve its 
connection and communication with the nearest corresponding parties, 
with those subordinate to it, and with that to which it is immediately 
subordinate. 

§ 296. The commander of every post should carefully examine, in per- 
son, the ground iu his vicinity, not only in reference to his relations with 
the nearest posts, but in regard to his movements if attacked. He must 
also find suitable watering-places. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 440 

§ 297. In case of an attack it is the duty of every party not only tc 
reinforce and support the parties immediately subordinate to it, but also 
to assist the neighboring parties whenever it is necessary and possible. 
If a retreat is ordered, or forced upon them, each party rallies on that to 
which it is subordinate. 

§ 298. In conformity with what has been said before, if firing at the 
chain is heard, the portions of the pickets and main guards ordered to be 
in constant readiness at once move forward, even if they have received no 
reports as to the advance of the enemy. In such cases, the reserve, 
although fully ready to meet the enemy, makes no movement, without 
orders, until the pickets and main guards are driven in. 

§ 299. Upon an attack by the enemy, the commander of every party 
should regulate his movements in accordance with those of the nearest 
parties, so that he may not expose them to be cut off by a premature 
retreat on his part, or expose himself either by too tardy a retreat, or by 
moving to the front with unnecessary rapidity. 

§ 300. It is the duty of all parties of the outposts and of all vedettes to 
hold their positions as long as possible. In the event of an attack they 
do not retreat without orders or pressing necessity; because, although 
there may be no difficulty in the retreat, and although the ground aban- 
doned may easily be reoccupied, yet the enemy gains something of which 
we cannot deprive him, — that is, a knowledge of the ground, which may 
have been the only object of his attack. 

§301. If any party is ordered to defend itself to the utmost, then, 
although the enemy is in superior force, they resist him on the spot, and, 
if necessary, unhesitatingly sacrifice themselves to the last man. 

§ 302. The commanders of all the posts should see that their subordi- 
nates have betimes the parole, icatchicorcl, and countersign. 

§ 303. The commanders of pickets allow all persons who know i\).Q parole, 
watchiooirl , and countersign to cross the chain in any direction, both by 
day and night, without obstacle. Therefore, in time of war, the parole is not 
given to the men, but only to those persons whose duty renders it necessary 
for them to possess it, and they preserve it with the utmost secrecy. 

§ 304. On this principle the parole is given only to the commanders of 
the main guards and pickets, and to those persons who are intrusted by 
the proper authorities with missions which render it necessary for them 
to cross the chain without detention. 

The watchword is given only to the non-commissioned officers sent out 
with patrols and reliefs, and serves for mutual challenges. 

The countersign is given to all on duty at the outposts, and serves to 
challenge all who approach the chain. 

§ 305. Upon the arrival at any post of people who, by the regulations 
or by special orders, are not to be allowed to pass, the commander of that 



450 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

post sends ihcra to his immediate chief. Upon the arrival of flags of truce 
he watches that they do not enter into conversation with any but the 
authorized persons. 

§ 306. At the outposts arms are not presented, nor the men mounted, 
for any of the commanders. Upon the approach of a superior officer, the 
party on duty at once stand to horse, the commander of the post orders 
the rest to do the same, and places himself in that position ; if the superior 
stops at the post, its commander reports what he has obser^'ed. 

§ 307. Upon the approach of the commander of the advanced guard, 
or of the main body, to the position of the outposts, he is met and accom- 
panied only by the commander of the outposts; the commander of each 
post remains with it. 

§ 308. When a post is relieved, the old commander will explain to the 
new one every thing which is, in his opinion, of importance, and every 
thing that he has observed in reference to the enemy and the locality. 

§ 309. If the commander of a party, newly placed on duty at the out- 
posts, finds any thing wrong in the original arrangement of the vedettes, 
pickets, or main guards, he must report it, through his immediate chief, 
to the commander of the outposts, and ask his permission to rectify the 
dispositions; until he receives this permission, he preserves the former 
arrangement. 

§ 310. The commanders of all posts watch over the punctual despatch 
of the reliefs of vedettes and posts sent out from their commands. It is 
best to relieve all the parties of the outposts before dawn ; for the enemy 
can advantageously avail himself of the darkness to approach the chain, 
in order to attack at daybreak, and the presence of the reliefs at this time 
doubles the force of the outposts. 

§ 311. The commanders especially see that the required rounds and 
patrols are sent at the proper times, never sending them at known hours 
or regular intervals ; for, as they are sent to verify the exactness of the 
posts, it is best that they should be constantly expected. 

Article 8. 

Of the duties of the outposta in covering any mareli or change of poaition 

of the troops tinder their guard. 

§ 312. If the troops, covered by the outposts, are ordered to make any 
movement, then to avoid a change of troops the parties who have formed 
the outposts constitute, if there is no special reason to the contrary, the 
advanced guard, if the march is to the front ; the rear guard, if it is in 
retreat; in the latter case, it is the duty of the vedettes and pickets to 
cover the retreat of the rear guard. 

§ 313. If the movement is to be concealed from the enemy, particular 
precautions are required on the part of the outposts. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 451 

They must redouble their vigilance, and take measures to insure that 
no one from the side of the enemy, neither patrols nor roconnuis.'-ances, 
penetrates our position ; and they must manage these measures of precau- 
tion in such a way that the enemy may not observe what is going on 
among us, or that any thing extraordinai'y is being undertaken. 

§ 314. Besides keeping all the posts perfectly ready for action, the 
means of effecting this consist in not sending more patrols than usual la 
front of the chain, but in sending them hfiliind it as secretly and fre- 
quently as possible, to prevent the enemy's patrols from crossing it. 

In addition, if it is necessary to place a party of troops near the chain, 
under cover, they should be in ambuscade, that they may attack tlie 
enemy unexpectedly if he endeavors to break through the chain. 

§ 315. In these cases, the outposts are ordered to resist the enemy as 
obstinately as possible, not only to prevent him from penetrating within 
our lines, but to hinder him from seeing any thing. Sometimes, in order 
to distract the attention of the enemy, attacks are made upon his outposts 
during the retreat of our own troops. Such attacks promise greater success 
in the night than in the day, because when, on the alarm, the supports 
of the enemy's outposts approach the chain, they may thence perceive 
things that were imperceptible, even to the strongest vision, from their 
usual posts. 

§ 31G. If a retreat is to be effected secretly, it is best not to relieve the 
outposts by fresh troops before their retreat, because the sight of the new 
troops may excite the attention of the enemy; while, on the contrary, the 
sight of old troops and posts may tend to diminish his vigilance. 

§ 317. Secret retreats are usually made at night, during which time it 
is endeavored to keep up the bivouac-fires, that the enemy may not 
observe the absence of the troops. 

§ 318. To facilitate the retreat of the outposts themselves, should they 
be attacked during the night, certain measures of precaution are adopted. 
The officers should thoroughly acquaint themselves with the roads of 
retreat, placing several posts on the roads, for greater security, and 
especially at crossings of streams, on cross-roads, and in places where the 
roads diverge. 

§ 319. A little before dawn, all the main guards are assembled and 
gradually retreat in the required direction; after them follow the pickets, 
and finally, at dawn, the whole chain commences its retreat, joining the 
pickets at a trot or gallop. 

§ 320. AVith a certain, although small, extension of the line of out- 
posts, it is impossible for them all to retire by one road without serious 
delay. Therefore there should, if po.ssible, be designated for their retreat 
several roads which unite with the main road, even if at a great distance; 
if this is impossible, it is best to concentrate them rapidly on one point, in 



452 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

order thus to form a detachment of sufficieut strength to resist the 
attempts of the enemy. 

§ 321. As a general rule, the moment when troops are breaking up 
their camp is the most favorable for the enemy to attack; it is, therefore, 
best to execute such things secretly, although there may be no other 
reason than this. If the means thus adopted are successful, the main 
body may sometimes accomplish the object of its movement before the 
enemy perceives its absence. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE ARRANGEMENTS OF THE OUTPOSTS AT A DISTANCE FROM THE 

ENEMY. 

§ 322. If the enemy is so far from us that he cannot pass over the in- 
tervening space in a single march, and is, therefore, obliged to move by 
the roads, it will be sufficient to limit the operations of the outposts to 
watching the roads. 

§ 328. In such cases it is only necessary to send out independent 
cavalry pickets on the roads leading towards the enemy; they communi- 
cate with each other by means of patrols. 

§ 324. As far as regards obtaining information of the enemy, it is best 
to push out these pickets as far as possible, but, on the other hand, it is 
more dangerous for the pickets themselves; therefore they should not be 
pushed so far in advance as to be in great danger of being cut off. 

§ 325. The distance to which they may be advanced will be increased 
in proportion to the number of roads occupied, the difficulty which the 
enemy must experience in moving secretly by each road, the distance to 
which patrols are sent out from each post, and the distance of the enemy 
from our position. It is necessary to be more cautious, and to draw in 
the pickets as the enemy approaches. 

§ 326. The force of each independent picket must depend upon the 
number of vedettes and patrols it is to furnish, and upon the degree of 
strength it ought to possess. 

§ 327. Every such picket is posted according to the rules laid down in 
§§ 220 and 221. The routine of duty and the measures of precaution 
are exactly as in ordinary pickets. 

§ 328. As a general rule, they preserve their mutual communication by 
patrols; in addition, they send out patrols as far as possible towards the 
enemy, to obtain the earliest possible news of him. 

§ 329. If they are far from the army, they must be supported by small 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 453 

detachments placed in reserve at points where several roads unite, or at 
places whence it is easiest to aiford prompt assistance to those pickets 
which may be expected to be attacked first. 

§ 330. Intelligent irregular cavalry, inured to tear, may be employed 
advantageously as independent pickets and patrols ; but the supports must 
always be of the regular cavalry. 

§ 331. Sometimes, even when at a great distance from the main body 
of the enemy, there may arise the necessity for the greatest precautions; 
for example, when the population is disposed to insurrection, or when the 
country is full of hostile partisans. 

In such cases the precautions should be in proportion to the danger. 



CHAPTER III. 

OF VISITING THE OUTPOSTS. 

§ 332. Small parties, consisting of a non-commissioned officer and two 
good men, are sent out by the pickets and main guards to ascertain 
whether the vedettes observe the proper vigilance and precaution. These 
parties are called patrols. Patrols also offer the advantage that they may 
happen to stumble upon the enemy stealing across the chain. 

§ 333. The non-commissioned officer of the patrol must have the 
icatchword and countersign. 

§ 334. A patrol sent to visit the vedettes proceeds as follows : the non- 
commissioned officer has his sabre at a carry ; the two men follow him 
with carbines advanced, or pistols drawn and cocked. They proceed to 
one flank o^ the chain belonging to their command ; cross to the outside 
of the chain near the flank vedettes, and approach the chain silently from 
the outside to test the vigilance of the vedettes. When the vedette chal- 
lenges, the non-commissioned officer replies, ^^ patrol," and, at the com- 
mand, " Advance, sergeant, with the countersign," advances to about 10 
paces from the vedette, and gives the countersign in a low voice. The 
patrol then proceeds, in the same manner, to the first vedette of the next 
picket, or main guard, near which it recrosses to the interior of the chain, 
returns to its party, and reports whatever has been observed. 

§ 335. If the non-commissioned officer finds the post of any pair of 
vedettes abandoned, he leaves one of his own men there, and sends in a 
man of the next pair to inform the commander of the picket. 

§ 336. The patrol must carry back with it all persons found detained at 
the chain, and all met with without the countersign. 



454 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

§ 337. If two patrols meet at night, and cannot recognize each other's 
faces, the one which first perceives the other cries, '' Halt ! Wlto comes 
there?" and, having received the reply, '■^Patrol!" cries, ^^ Advance, ser- 
geant, with the countersign !" the non-commissioned oflBicer of the second 
patrol gives the countersign, and, in his turn, then demands the watch- 
word ; if the replies are all correct, both patrols then proceed on their 
march, each having informed the other of any thing extraordinary 
observed or suspected. 

§ 338. Upon suddenly meeting the enemy, patrols act as prescribed for 
vedettes. 

§ 339. The number of patrols sent to visit the vedettes must be increased 
in proportion to the dilficulty of seeing the vedettes from the pickets, the 
darkness of the night, the obstructions of the ground, the thinness of the 
chain, and the fatigue of the men, whether arising from a long march or 
a combat. 

Under these circumstances, patrols are sent out continually, that is, on 
the return of one, another is at once sent out. 

In the daytime, in clear weather, and in open country, but few patrols 
are despatched, though the vedettes must be kept in constant expectation 
of them. 

§ 340. To inspect the pickets and main guards, the commander of the 
outposts sends out " rounds," from time to time. 

§ 341. Rounds consist of an officer with two privates; all the main 
guards and pickets should be informed betimes what officers are ordered 
to make the rounds. 

§ 342. The officer making the rounds must know the parole, watchword, 
and countersign. 

§ 343. In reply to the challenge of the sentinel at the main guard or 
picket, the officer making the rounds answers, '• Hounds !" 

To receive the rounds, that part of the main guard or picket which is 
ordered to be in constant readiness mounts, without drawing sabre ; those 
reposing are not disturbed. In other regards the rounds are received as 
in time of peace. 

§ 344. The commander of the party visited reports to the rounds the 
number of men under his command, the arrangements of all his posts, 
the number of men absent on duty, the number present, and every thing 
that has been observed. 

§ 345. After this the officer making the rounds examines the command, 
satisfies himself that they are in the required state of preparation, and 
verifies the general number of men. Then, if he has been ordered to 
test whether the whole command can be promptly in the saddle, he noti- 
fies the commander of the post, who at once orders all the men to mount. 

§ 346. Every thing prescribed here should be done quietly, and all 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 455 

orders be given in a low tone. After this the rounds proceed to the 
next post; but the officer may demand an escort from the party just 
inspected. 

§ 347. The rounds are not limited to visiting the main guards and 
pickets, but may be required to visit the vedettes ; in this case they act as 
prescribed for patrols sent for the same purpose. 

§ o48. The rounds are not sent out at fixed hours; the hours of their 
visits depend upon the judgment of the commander of the outposts, and 
should be so regulated that the parties to be visited may not know when 
to expect them; they are sent out most frequently at night, and just 
before dawn. 

§ 349. Upon the return of the rounds the officer reports to the com- 
mander of the outposts the condition in which he found affiiirs, and 
every thing he observed. 



CHAPTER IV. 

OF PATROLS. 



§ 350. The duties of patrols sent out hy troops on the march were 
described in Part I., Chapter II., Article 5. 

In this chapter will be described the duties of patrols sent out hy troops 
in camp. 

§ 351. Besides the patrols sent out to visit the vedettes, (§§ 332 to 
339,) patrols are sent out for other purposes, namely : 

1. To keep up the communication between the different parties of the 
outposts. 

2. To reconnoitre the enemy ; and, 

3. To examine the country. 

§ 352. When a patrol is sent out to keep up the communication be- 
tween different parties of the outposts, it rides to the post whither it is sent, 
reports to the commander whatever it was directed to communicate, and 
every thing observed on the way ; having received his instructions, the 
patrol returns to its party. 

§ 353. To insure the safety and tranquillity of the troops it is not suffi- 
cient for the outposts merely to watch the space visible from the chain, 
because the enemy may send out small parties to make partial attacks, in 
order to exhaust the troops by forcing them to assemble on continual 
alarms. To secure the outposts against such attacks, as well as to discover" 
the enemy and examine the country, patrols are sent out in advance of 
the chain. 



456 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

§ 354. Sucli patrols are divided into near and distant patrols ; they 
are composed of light cavalry in preference. 

§ 355. Near patrols consist of a non-commissioned officer with two or 
three prompt men, and are sent out by all parties of the outposts. They 
move on all the main roads leading towards the enemy, and do not go 
more than one or two miles from the vedettes, so that they may give prompt 
information of the approach of the enemy; they limit themselves to 
watching him. These patrols are sent out the more frequently in pro- 
portion as the enemy can approach more secretly; so that in an ob- 
structed country, in thick fogs, dark nights, and close to the enemy, they 
are sent out continually, — that is, one immediately upon the return of 
another. 

§ 356. Distant patrols are sent out to discover the enemy and examine 
the country at considerable distances, (from 2 to 10, and even more, 
miles,) and are composed of a greater number of men, (of 10, 20, 30, 
and more,) that they may sometimes be able to attack hostile patrols, and 
make prisoners. They are usually commanded by an officer, to whom are 
explained, in detail, the object of his mission, the means of accomplishing 
it, and the direction he is to take ; he is also instructed whether to engage 
the enemy's patrols or to avoid a combat. 

§ 357. Distant patrols sometimes consist of a company, or more, espe- 
cially if they cannot return the same day. They are sent out by the 
advance guard or main body, and take the name oi Jli/ing detachments. 
As a general rule, all distant patrols are under the orders of the com- 
mander of the outposts. 

§ 358. The moment a patrol passes beyond the chain, it should detach 
front, flank, and rear patrollers, to secure itself against sudden attack. 
In figs. 4 and 5 are given examples of the arrangements of patrols of 15 
and 30 men ; larger patrols are arranged according to the same prin- 
ciples. Smaller patrols are arranged according to their strength : for 
example, a patrol of five men sends out one in front, and one on each 
side; a patrol of three men places one in front, the others move at a little 
distance apart, — one watching to the right, the other to the left. 

§ 359. It is a great advantage for a patrol to see the enemy before 
being discovered itself; this renders it possible to avoid a stronger force, 
and to apprize the outposts of its approach, or to attack, by surprise, an 
equal or inferior force. 

§ 360. In order to secure themselves against a sudden attack, patrols 
should use all possible precautions, and observe the deepest silence; the 
patrollers carry their pieces cocked. In the night, and in thick weather, 
all precautions are redoubled. The patrol should occasionally halt and 
listen ; the men in front and on the flanks, dismounting b}- turns, place 
the ear to the ground, &c. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 457 

§ 361. On their return march the patrols should be even more cau- 
tious; because the enemy, having perceived them, may select this very 
time for the attack, on the supposition that the outposts, being relieved 
from apprehension by the return of the patrols, may somewhat relax their 
vigilance. 

§ 362. The commander of a patrol should concert certain signals with 
his j)atrollers by which they are to indicate their discoveries. If the 
necessary precautions are observed, it is impossible for the enemy to 
attack unawares; therefore the commander of a patrol is always held 
responsible for its loss. 

§ 363. In Part I., Chapter II., Article 5, are explained the precautions 
to be observed by patrols sent out by troops on the march ; these measures 
are equally applicable in the present case, and the following are prescribed 
in addition : 

§ 364. If a patrol leaves in its rear defiles by which it is intended to 
return, a few men should be left to hold them, — in preference, the men 
having the worst horses. If these men are driven ofi" by a superior force, 
they can, by means of preconcerted signals, (such as rockets, lighted 
straw on poles, &c.,) inform the patrol of the fact, so that it may seek 
another line of retreat. 

§ 365. As these patrols are usually intended merely to discover the 
enemy and examine the country, they should generally avoid a combat 
unless success seems certain. 

§ 366. That he may be able to avoid the' enemy when still unperceived 
by him, the commander of a patrol pays special attention to the ground, 
so that in case of necessity he may avail himself of its accidents for con- 
cealment. 

§ 367. Upon meeting the enemy in superior force, the patrol should at 
once commence its retreat if already discovered. 

§ 368. If a patrol suddenly stumbles upon the enemy in the night, it 
is best to attack at once ; in the night the advantage is always on the side 
of those who attack first, for to the habitual disorder following a sudden 
attack is added the uncertainty as to the strength of the attacking party. 
In such cases, decision and the advantage of the initiative insure success. 
When the enemy is beaten off and retreats, he ought not to be pursued 
far, lest we fall into an ambuscade ; and it is best, not being allured by 
success, to avail ourselves of it, and retreat in good order. 

§ 369. The guides of patrols ought to be chosen for their thorough 
knowledge of the country and fidelity; but their suggestions should not 
be blindly followed : to verify them, constant inquiries should be made 
of the inhabitants, and of all persons met on the road ; for greater secu- 
rity, the guides should be detained until the patrol is in perfect safety. 

§ 370. To rest and feed the horses, the patrol avails itself of some 



458 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

covered place off the road, as a forest, ravine, &c. During the halt, the 
patrol secures itself by means of vedettes, small patrols, and the precau- 
tions described for independent pickets. In these cases the use of fire is 
rigorously forbidden, no matter how well concealed the place may be. 
If any inhabitants are found on the spot, they must be detained until the 
patrol departs. During the winter, halts are made at isolated houses, or 
small hamlets, taking care that none of the inhabitants pass beyond the 
chain of sentinels established by the patrol. 

§ 371. Patrols being in small force, in order to avoid the danger of 
being cut off, should never remain long in any one place. 

§ 372. All patrols, especially those intended to examine the country, 
should, if possible, return by a different route from that by which they 
advanced; besides thus increasing their own security, they examine a 
greater space, and bring back information concerning two roads instead 
of one. 

§ 373. It is very desirable that the commander of a patrol sent to 
examine the country should make sketches of the ground passed over, or 
at least describe in great detail all the objects met with of any import- 
ance in a military point of view, such as roads, rivers, forests, and defiles. 
Whether the roads are practicable for all kinds of troops; the nature of 
the road-bed ; whither the roads lead ; and whether they are the shortest. 
The extent of the forests; whether they are dense or open, marshy or 
dry. The size of the villages ; whether they are situated on heights or 
in hollows; whether they contain churches and mills; whether a stream 
runs through them in one channel, or in several branches, or around 
them ; whether the inhabitants have many cattle and much provisions. 
With regard to rivers, he observes their depth, fords, and bridges; 
whether the bottom is boggy or hard ; the declivity and height of the 
banks; which bank is the higher, and where it is easiest to cross. As 
to marshes, he notes their extent; whether they are passable; whether 
there are dikes across them, and of what kind. In reference to defiles, 
he notes their length and breadth ; describes the adjacent country, and 
whether the defiles can be turned. Where the commanders of patrols 
cannot go in person, they interrogate the inhabitants concerning these 
things, and compare the various replies received. 

§ 374. Since special acquirements are necessary for the successful 
accomplishment of the object of these patrols, an oflBcer of the staff is 
sent with each of them, or is placed in command. 

§ 375. Sometimes patrols are sent out to alarm the enemy's outposts. 
These attempts usually succeed when the latter are very much scattered ; for 
then, to repulse the attack, he collects his posts ; but the patrol, having 
gained its object, that is, having alarmed the enemy, in the mean while 
retreats in safety. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 459 

§ 376. Such attacks are made in preference in the night, or in dark 
and bad weather. The patrol, conceaHng its weakness, should silently 
steal up to the enemy; for on this depends its success. 

Having approached the outposts, it should rapidly, noisily, and with 
warm firing fall on them as foragers, create an alarm, seize, if possible, 
some of the vedettes or pickets, and then retreat rapidly before the enemy 
recovers. 

§ 377. As a conclusion to the rules laid down in this chapter, it may 
be stated that the principal duties of the commander of a patrol are the 
following : 

1. To be always cautious. 

2. Always to provide for the security of his retreat. 

3. Never to allow himself to be surrounded and captured. 

4. To examine the country carefully, and remember its features. 

5. To obtain all possible information from the inhabitants. 

0. To understand how to select guides and how to treat them; and, 

7. To endeavor to examine every thing in person. 

§ 378. As for the rest, it is impossible to give the commander of a 
patrol instructions in sufiicient detail to cover all the exceptional cases 
that may arise; therefore the success of his mission must depend chiefly 
upon his discretion and presence of mind. 

Rashness, equally with cowardice, both here and everywhere, fails to 
secure the desired advantages. 



CHAPTER V. 



OF THE COMMAND OF THE OUTPOSTS. 

§ 379. In order to secure unity in the arrangements and operations of 
the outposts, a field or general ofiicer is detailed as the commander of the 
outposts ; all the parties are under his command. 

There is usually detailed for duty with him an officer of the stafi", 
whose particular duty it is to prepare an accurate and rapid description 
of the ground. 

§ 380. The commander of the outposts may either be detailed for a 
certain length of time, or be relieved at the same time with his troops ; 
in the latter case, he is usually the senior officer of the troops detailed 
for outpost duty. 

§ 381. Having received from the commander-in-chief, or the chief of 
staff, instructions as to their operations, the general direction and extent 
of the chain, information of the number of troops, and destination of 
the parties detailed for the service, he sees to the prompt occupation of 



460 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

the places designated for the positions of the outposts, — making, in 
general, such modifications of the arrangement as may appear necessary. 

§ 382. He receives every day from the commander-in-chief, in writing, 
and under an envelope, thej^a^'o^e, tcatcliwonl, and countersujn ; he com- 
municates these to the commanders of the main guards for the use of 
their posts. 

§ 383. He gives the necessary instructions to the commanders of the 
main guards, pickets, and other posts, and maintains a constant watch 
over their punctuality and vigilance in the execution of their duty, and 
sees that they keep up the necessary connection with each other. 

§ 384. He should be informed of every thing that happens at the 
chain ; nothing should escape his attention with respect to the posts, and 
guarding the ground around them ; it is his duty not only to correct, but 
anticipate, negligence, and to give all necessary directions. 

§ 385. He makes the distribution of patrols, determining from what 
parties, by what roads, and how far they are to move; he despatches 
distant patrols, and gives to their commanders detailed and precise orders. 

§ 386. He arranges the despatching of rounds to visit the outposts, 
and also goes around in person. He informs betimes the commanders of 
the main guards and pickets as to who will be sent on the rounds. The 
hours of sending out the rounds depend upon his judgment; usually 
they go out during the night and before dawn. 

§ 387. Upon the arrival of flags of truce, deserters, or strangers, he 
acts according to the instructions received from the commander-in-chief, 
or chief of stafi", to whom he ought to refer in all doubtful cases. 

§ 388. The post of the commander of the outposts is with the reserve, 
whither all reports are sent from the outposts ; but if there is no reserve, 
he places himself with the main guard which is nearest the centre of the 
general position. In every case he notifies all the commanders where he 
will be, that they may know where to send their reports. 

§ 389. But he so arranges matters that, if he is not found at the place 
designated, the report, no matter what it is, may be forwarded direct to 
the commander of the advanced guard, and also that this may in general 
be carried out in cases whei-e the point from which the report originates is 
nearer to the commander of the advanced guard than to his own habitual 
position; but he takes care that he himself shall, in all cases, be promptly 
informed of every thing that occurs. 

§ 390. The commander of the outposts, having received reliable reports 
from all his parties, regulates their operations in conformity with his 
instructions, and conducts their movements, either so as to repulse the 
attempts of the enemy, or to concentrate the parties, or to afford support 
to any of them, or, finally, to make a general retreat. 

§ 391. He promptly reports to the commander-in-chief every thing 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 461 

deserving attention that lias been observed, and also sends him early 
reports of his intentions. 

§ 392. Upon the arrival of the commander-in-chief at the outposts, 
their commander accompanies him over the whole position. 



CHAPTER VI. 



OF THE DUTIES OF HUNTERS, FRIENDLY INDIANS, ETC., AT THE 

OUTPOSTS.* 

§ 393. Outpost service is performed by these kinds of ti'oops rather 
differently from the manner pursued in the regular cavalry. Adopting 
for them the rules herein contained, and which can be explained to them 
by their chiefs, they may be advantageously employed in advance of the 
regular cavalry. 

§ 394. The main difference is, that the advanced chain does not consist 
of double vedettes, relieved every two hours, but of pickets of 3 or 4 men 
each, on duty for 24 hours, and relieving each other in the task of watch- 
ing the enemy. 

§ 395. These pickets are placed at such a distance apart that they can 
see each other, or at least that the enemy cannot slip through without 
being seen by one or other of the pickets. 

§ 396. In each picket one man, mounted, or on foot, with his horse 
bridled by his side, constantly watches the whole spaces committed to the 
picket; another remains behind him in full readiness to mount j but the 
others repose, feed their horses, lead them to water, and even go in search 
of forage. 

§ 397. If the pickets are pushed very far in advance of the regular 
cavalry, lines of supports are placed behind them. These supports are 
placed in preference near roads, or points of special importance, where 
they may serve as points of assembly for the chain of pickets. 

§ 398. The supports usually consist of from 6 to 12 men each. One 
of them, usually standing to horse, places himself in sight of the chain 
of pickets, also turning his attention to the ground on each side. Of the 
rest of the men a part hold themselves in readiness, while the others rest, 
feed and water their horses, and, if necessary, go for forage. 

§ 399. The remainder of the companies, or the regiment on duty, 
usually form a reserve, about a mile in rear of the lines of supports, on 
the principal road, or behind the centre of the chain. A part of this 

* This chapter is taken from one in the Russian regulations, relating to the duty of 
Cossacks at the outposts. 



462 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

reserve is held in readiness to mount, but the greater part repose, and even 
hobble or picket their horses. 

§ 400. The quick sight, activity, and vigilance of the men, referred to 
in this chapter, are such as to allow a greater interval between these 
pickets than between the pairs of ordinary vedettes. The supjjorts, not 
being intended to relieve the chain, but merely to serve as rallying-points, 
may also be placed farther apart than the pickets of regular cavalr}-. 
Finally, instead of main guards, there is in this case but one main reserve. 
From these facts it would appear that reliable men, of the kind alluded 
to here, may guard a given space with a smaller number of men, and less 
fatigue, than regular cavalry. Reserves of light cavalry should be posted 
on a line with the main reserve of the irregulars. The Indian horses 
being peculiarly capable of enduring the fatigue of outpost duty, the 
friendly Indians, if there are any present, should compose the outposts in 
preference. 

§ 401. During the night and in dark weather the intervals between the 
irregular pickets must be decreased, as prescribed for vedettes. 

§ 402. Regular patrols and rounds need not be so much resorted to, 
but each particular chief should often ride around the whole circuit of 
his command. 

§ 403. The irregular reserve will from time to time send out patrols of 
5, 10, or 15 men to reconnoitre in all directions. 



CHAPTER VII. 



OF THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE OUTPOSTS ACCORDING TO THE 
NATURE OF THE GROUND. 

§ 404. The art of arranging the outposts according to the nature of 
the ground is founded upon : 1. The proper general direction of the 
advanced chain; 2. The distribution of the supports; and, 3. The com- 
position of the supports. The object to be gained is to discover the 
enemy at the greatest possible distance with the smallest possible number 
of men, without exposing any of the posts to be cut off. 

§ 405. The general line of the outposts is generally determined by 
some natural objects, such as the banks of rivers, creeks, borders of 
ravines, marshes, skirts of woods, crests of heights, &c. 

§ 406. The chain of vedettes should cross objects favoring the view of 
the surrounding country, and its flanks should rest on impracticable 
places. It should be neither too far advanced nor too close in : in the 
first case, it would be difficult for the vedettes to retreat; in the last case, 
the troops guarded would not have the necessary time given them. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 463 

§ 407. The chain should not be so placed as to have close in front of it 
covered places, villages, woods, and such objects; if it is not possible to 
throw the chain in advance of these places without too great an exten- 
sion, it is best to draw it a great deal to the rear. If this last cannot be 
done, for want of space, it only remains to redouble vigilance and send 
out more fi'equcnt patrols. 

§ 408. If the chain is placed behind an impassable object, such as a 
broad river or a very bad marsh, it may be made thinner than usual, or 
even be entirely dispensed with; in the latter case, patrols must be sent 
out, more or less frequently, in proportion to the degree of impractica- 
bility of the ground and the difficulty of examining it. In no case should 
any portion of the ground remain entirely unwatched, however impracti- 
cable it may appear to be. 

§ 409. In mountainous regions, where the broken nature of the country 
embarrasses communications and facilitates the concealment of the enemy's 
movements on all sides, the outposts draw nearer together than the speci- 
fied normal distances, and sometimes the camp is entirely surrounded by a 
chain of vedettes. 

§ 410. In the general line of the outposts there maybe places unfit for 
the operations of cavalry; such portions are necessarily occupied by 
infantry, all the rest by cavalry: in such cases, one part of the chain will 
consist of mounted vedettes, the rest of pairs of infantry sentinels. In 
this case, the outposts are formed of cavalry and infantry, each guarding 
the ground destined for it according to the rules laid down for that arm ; 
but such a chain of outposts should form one general whole, and the dif- 
ferent parts must maintain a constant union, unless separated by wholly 
impassable obstacles. 

§ 411. The vedettes should be posted at the points commanding the 
most distant views ; in the day they are placed on the summits of the 
hills, at night they fall back to the foot of the slope. They should also 
be concealed by some natural object, which, at the same time, permits 
them to see all around. Between the pairs of vedettes there should be 
no covered places which might conceal the approach of the enemy. 

§ 412. In the distribution of the supports of the chain, that is, the 
pickets, main guards, and reserves, they are posted in preference at places 
around which the enemy cannot pass, or, at least, at places where he may 
most probably be expected ; therefore, they are usually posted near the 
roads, especially at cross-roads. 

§ 413. Another condition in the distribution of the supports is that 
each should, if possible, see the parties directly subordinate to it, and to 
which it ought to give immediate support. This is particularly important 
for the pickets in relation to the vedettes, because on the approach of the 
enemy the latter form part of the former. 

28 



4G4 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

§ 414. A third condition for the proper distribution of the supports is 
that they should be concealed until the moment for action arrives. 

§ 415. Finally, a fourth condition is that they should be placed in posi- 
tions suitable for their operations ; that is, cavalry should have an open 
unobstructed space in their front, but infantry, an obstructed country. 
This condition is of peculiar importance in regard to the reserve, which 
is expected to make a more obstinate resistance than the main guard and 
pickets. 

§ 416. In order to preserve the general union between all parts of the 
outposts, and more especially between tlie outposts and the troops guarded 
by them, there should be no impassable obstacles between them ; this is to 
avoid exposing any party to being cut off and defeated separately. If 
there is behind the chain of vedettes a place across which communication 
is difficult, it is best to place the main guards or pickets near it, that they 
may hold the crossings, and permit the fulfilment of the other conditions 
for a good arrangement. 

§ 417. Pickets relieving vedettes should always be composed of the 
same kind of troops as their vedettes; the main guards and reserves are 
composed according to the nature of the ground between the pickets and 
the camp ; in places suitable for cavalry they consist of that arm, in 
defensive positions they are of infantry. 

§ 418. To secure their greater independence, the reserves of the out- 
posts may sometimes be composed of all three arms; but in an open, 
unobstructed country they may be of cavalry and horse artillery alone. 

§ 419. Example of the arrangement of outposts composed of cavalry 
alone. (Fig. 8.) 

It is supposed that an advanced guard, consisting of a brigade of cavalry 
and a division of infantry, is iu the village A, and that it is necessary to 
guard it against the enemy, expected by the roads B. 

§ 420. To determine the line of observation to be occupied by the out- 
posts, the whole ground between the position of the advanced guard and 
the points accessible by the enemy must first be carefully examined on the 
map ; from the selection of the line of observation results the composition 
of the chain and its supports. 

§ 421. In this example, according to the conditions already mentioned, 
the most advantageous line of observation is that proceeding from the 
village L, through the villages M and N, thence following the ridge to 
the lake P. This line is favorable, because : 

1. The right flank, resting on the marsh near the village L, cannot be 
turned, and requires no further extension. 

2. The left flank, resting on the lake, allows us to observe from the 
ridge the distant movements of the enemy ; the ridge also conceals our 
own movements from the enemy in that direction. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 



4G5 



Fisr. 8. 




The ailvanceil guard A, composed of a brigade of cavalry and a division of infantry, 
i? in the village A, and it is necessary to post outposts to guard it against the enemy, 
expected by the roads B ; 10 companies of cavalry and 2 pieces of horse artillery are de- 
tailed for the outposts and reserve. C is the reserve, consisting of 4 companies and 2 
guns. D, D', and D" are the main guards, consisting of one company each. E, E, E', 
E', E", E'", are the pickets, of a platoon each. II is an independent picket, of one 
platoon, observing the road K. 



t'yTTf-»« Infantry. 

{■^"^mm Cavalry. 

# Cavalry vedettes. 



/ '/z 



d Scale of miles. 



466 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

3. Without being too far off, the chain is at such a distance that every 
movement of the enemy can be discovered in season to enable the advanced 
guard to take all its measures for operating against him. 

§ 422. Upon the nature of the ground over which the line of observa- 
tion extends must depend the kind of troops who are to hold it. 

In this example, from the appearance of the ground towards the enemy 
and towards the advanced guard, it seems that cavalry can act with advan- 
tage ; therefore all the outposts are of that arm. 

The extent of the line is a little more than 5 miles : therefore, accord- 
ing to the estimate in § 193, 6 companies will be required for the vedettes, 
pickets, and main guards. As the ground opposes no obstacles to the 
action of cavalry, the reserve should also be of that arm. This reserve, 
consisting of 4 companies of cavalry and 2 pieces of horse artillery, is 
posted at the central point C, whence it can easily move to all parts of 
the outposts. 

§ 423. In accordance with the principles just explained* the commander 
of the advanced guard issues in this case instructions to the following 
purport : 

1. The Nth regiment of cavalry and 2 pieces of the Nth battery of horse 
artillery are detailed for outpost duty. These troops will post a chain of 
vedettes from the village L, through the villages M and N, and along the 
ridge to the lake P. 

2. Patrols will be sent out : from the village L to F ; from the picket 
E'", along the road Gr; and from the other posts, in the direction in which 
the enemy is expected. 

3. If the enemy attacks in force, the outposts will fall back upon the 
advanced guard. 

With these instructions as a basis, the commander of the outposts 
makes his assignments; each company is directed where to take position, 
and between what points to occupy the line of observation; all the parties 
are posted as explained above and shown in Fig. 8. 

§ 424. If, in the example given in Fig. 8, the right flank of the 
advanced guard is not regarded as sufficiently protected by the marsh, 
then an independent picket, consisting of a platoon, is posted at H, to 
watch the road leading through the village I ; this picket posts two pairs 
of vedettes. 

§ 425. Example of the arrangement of outposts composed of both 
cavalry and infantry. (Fig. 9.) 

It is supposed that the advanced guard A, consisting of a brigade of 
cavalry and a division of infantry, is placed behind the village B, and 
that outposts are to be posted to guard against an attack by the enemy 
arriving from the direction of the village C. 

§ 42G. With this arrangement of the advanced guard, it is best to place 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 



4G7 



Fig. 9. 




The advanced guard A, consisting of a brigade of cavalry and a division of infantry, 
is placed behind the village B, and outposts are to be )io?ted to guard against an attack 
by the enemy arriving from the direction of the village C ; 4 companies of cavalry, 2 
regiments of infantry, and 2 pieces of foot artillery are detailed to furnish the outposts 
and reserve. 

D is the reserve, consisting of IJ companies of cavalry, 11 companies of infantry, and 
" pieces of foot artillerj'. 

E is a main guard of 3 companies of infantry, which furnishes the two pickets F, each 
of which posts 5 pairs of sentinels. 

E' is an infantry main guard of 2 companies, which supports the two cavalry pickets 
H, each of which consists of a platoon and posts 3 pairs of vedettes. E" is an infantry 
main guard of 2 companies, to support the cavalry picket 11', which posts 4 vedettes, and 
H ', which posts 1 vedette. E'" is an infantry main guard of 2 companies, which holds 
the cemetery and supports the cavalry picket H'", posting 3 vedettes. 



mEmm 4 infantry. 



Cavalry. 



Scale of miles. 



468 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

the outposts on the left side of the creek M, because if the line of posts 
Avere limited by the stream it would be difficult to obtain information of 
the movements of the enemy's advanced guard. 

§ 427. The best line of observation is from the lake N to the corner 
of the village B, then along the edge of this village to the marsh Q. On 
account of its shortness and the nature of the objects on which its flanks 
rest, this line is very advantageous. From the lake N to the village B 
(about IJ mile) it may be held by cavalry; along the edge of the village, 
(about f of a mile,) by infantry. 

§ 428. To prevent the line from being turned, independent pickets 
must in this case be posted on the left flank, near the lake N and the 
height 0, on the right flank on the road L; to support the pickets and 
defend the villages and crossings, it is best that all the main guards should 
be of infantry. 

§ 429. Thus the line will consist of 2 cavalry and 2 infantry pickets, 
holding the main line of observation, of 3 independent cavalry pickets, 
and of 4 infantry main guards. To supply these, 5 platoons of cavalry 
and about 9 companies of infantry will be necessary; so that for the 
whole outpost service, including the reserve, there may be detailed 4 
companies of cavalry, 2 battalions of infantry, and 2 pieces of foot artil- 
lery. 

§ 430. On this basis the commander of the outposts receives the follow- 
ing instructions : 

1. Four companies of the Nth regiment of cavalry, the Mth and Nth 
regiments of infantry, and 2 pieces of the Nth foot battery are detailed 
for the outposts. 

2. The cavalry will occupy the line of the outposts from the lake N, 
along the ravine P, to the corner of the village B; the infantry, from this 
last point, along the edge of the village to the marsh Q. 

One independent cavalry picket will be posted near the village B, 
another in front of the village I, a third on the road L. 

3. The main guards will be of infantry, posted as follows: one, of 2 
companies, in the cemetery near the end of the village B ; another, of 3 
companies, in that village; a third, of 2 companies, in the village Gr; a 
fourth, of 2 conipanies, in the village I. 

4. The rest of the troops detailed will form the reserve of the outposts, 
and be posted at D, on the main road, behind the crossing over the 
stream M. 

5. As long as the enemy does not show a strong force of infantry, ever}' 
effort will be made to keep him beyond the villages. 

Under the foregoing instructions the outposts may be arranged a;! shown 
in Fig. 9. 

§ 431. Finally, among the examples of the disposition of outpctsts 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 4C9 

according to the ground may be considered the case of a locality which 
permits the enemy to approach only by a few passes. If he is separated 
from us by a river, a marsh, rough hills, kc, and can approach only by 
known fords, passages, or narrow defiles, then, if these points are occupied 
by independent pickets, there will be no necessity for a continuous chain 
of vedettes. 

Kemark. — Whenever the camp is behind a rivei", the outposts should 
convey to their own side all the boats and other means of crossing. 

§ 432. In such cases, the independent pickets are posted at points 
which the enemy cannot turn. 

§ 433. For their own safety, they post vedettes; if the ground permits, 
they communicate with each other by means of patrols. 

§ 434. If it is necessary to support the independent pickets, reserves 
are placed as directed in § 412. 

§ 435. Example of the arrangement of the oufpotMs in a locality u-licre 
the enemy can approach only by a few passes. (Fig. 10.) 

It is supposed that a detachment, composed of a brigade of cavalry 
and a division of infantry, is placed at the village k. to guard, in connec- 
tion with another detachment at B, the troops following from the north, 
and that outposts are to be posted ; and that it is known that the advanced 
troops of the enemy, approaching from the south, have not yet occupied 
the village N, and that they cannot turn the passages over the stream P. 

§ 436. It is evident that it is unnecessary, in this case, to post a con- 
tinuous chain of vedettes, and that it will be sufficient to place independent 
pickets on the main roads, at proper distances from the advanced detach- 
ment to be supported by it, and keep up the communication with the de- 
tachment at B. 

§ 437. Upon examining the ground in front of A and B, it is evident 
that the stream P is the most advantageous line of observation, and that 
the main detachment will be perfectly secure if the crossings of the 
stream are occupied by independent pickets. 

§ 438. The crossings are at the points Q, R, S, T, U, and V. Sup- 
posing the crossing at Q to be occupied by a picket from the detachment 
at B, and that each picket consists of a platoon, the detachment at 
A must furnish 5 platoons, or 6 if the flank picket at K consists of a 
company. 

§ 439. Main guards, consisting of a company each, are posted near 
the villages F and I; and there may be a reserve of 4 or 5 companies 
and a few guns at the village D. 

§ 440. The pickets posted near R, 8, and T, should send out patrols to 
the village N, and the.pickets near U and V send patrols to the village 
AV; a small detachment should be sent through the village N, to keep on 
antil it finds the enemy; this should be composed of a company. 



470 



REGULATIONS F il FIELD SERVICE 



Fig. 10. 




The enemy is beyond the village N ; our own detachments occupy A and B ; the force at 
A consists of a brigade of cavalry and a division of infantry; 10 companies of cavalry 
and two pieces of horse artillery are detailed from A to furnish the outposts and reserve, 
C is the reserve, consisting of 5 companies and 2 guns. E is a main guard of 1 company, 
supporting the pickets G and G', each of which posts a vedette at the crossings R and S 
respectively. E' is a main guard of 1 companj'^, supporting the pickets G", which post one 
vedette at T and one at a crossing above, and G'", which posts a vedette at V. The 
pickets G, G', G", G'", each consist of a platoon. K is a picket, consisting of a company 
which posts two vedettes near the village L, and patrols the road beyond. 

M is a distant patrol, of one company, detached from the reserve to find the enemy. 
is a picket belonging to the detachment B, which posts a vedette at the crossing Q. 



■ Infantry. 



Cavalry. 



i=b 



■^ Scale of miles. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 47I 

§ 441. On these principles the commander of the outposts receives the 
following instructions : 

1. The Nth regiment of cavalry and 2 pieces of the Nth horse battery 
are detailed for the outposts. 

2. Until the enemy arrives at the village N, the outposts will keep 
only independent pickets at the crossings of the stream P, at R, 8, T, U, 
and V; the main guards to be companies near F, I, and L; in order to 
observe the enemy better, one company will be sent through the village 
N, to keep on until it finds the enemy; the remainder of the cavalry and 
the guns will be posted iu reserve near the village D. Near patrols will 
be sent out, as usual, from all the pickets, in the direction of the villages 
N and W, and distant patrols to keep on until they find the enemy. 

To carry out these instructions, the outposts may be arranged as shown 
in fig. 10. 

§ 442. If the line observed by the independent pickets is very far 
from the camp, and it is not intended to defend it, but they are restricted 
to observation and giving notice of the enemy's approach, then this line 
is occupied by cavalry alone, according to the rules for independent pickets. 

§ 443. But if the line is near the camp, or for other reasons it is 
necessary to defend as well as observe it, then it should be occupied by 
infantry in force proportionate to the importance of the case, or the possi- 
bility of holding it long enough to permit other troops to arrive. 

§ 444. Such posts are called independent defensive posts. 

If an independent defensive post is far from camp, and it is only in- 
tended to delay the advance of the head of the enemy's column, and then 
fall back on the other troops, cavalry should occupy it in preference. 

§ 445. In such cases mounted riflemen are of great use, because they 
repulse the enemy by acting as infantry, and can retreat with the rapidity 
of cavalry when it becomes necessary; and, when covering the retreat 
of other troops, they can act sometimes as infantry, sometimes as cavalry, 
according to the nature of the ground and the necessity of the case. 

§ 446. In an independent defensive post, the party on duty dismounts 
and occupies the point to be defended as infantry; the rest of the men 
repose near the horses, observing the precautions prescribed for main 
guards; they are placed in rear of the men acting as infontry, and keep 
the horses bitted. 

§ 447. In all the cases mentioned in this chapter, precise instructions 
are given to the commander of each party as to what is to be done in the 
event of the appearance of the enemy. 

§ 448. As a conclusion to this chapter, it may be stated that, although 
the disposition of the outposts, according to the nature of the ground, is 
of the utmost importance, for the reason that success in watching the 
enemy depends neither on the number nor strength of the outposts, but 



472 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

on their skilful arrangement, all that can be said on the subject is limited 
rather to an explanation of the general importance of objects than to 
laying down any precise rules. In all cases theory must yield to the 
judgment of the commander, for a blind and unconditional following of 
rules may result in injury rather than advantage. 

From all that precedes, it appears that troops may be guarded either 
by continuous chains with lines of supports, or by independent posts, or 
by patrols, or, finally, by all three methods combined. 

But there is no doubt that, if we carefully conform to the principles 
laid down for each of these arrangements, one of them will often suffice; 
while, on the contrary, if we neglect these principles, the employment of 
all three may be insufficient. 



CHAPTER VIII. 



PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED IN THE CAMP OF THE 
MAIN BODY. 

§ 449. To avoid f\itiguing the troops by keeping all of them constantly 
ready for a movement and combat, but at the same time to secure them 
against attack, and be able to afford prompt assistance to the outposts, a 
portion of the main body is detailed as an inlying picket. 

§ 450. The inlying picket must always be ready for action on the first 
order or signal. The men should therefore always be to the front, and 
be dressed both by day and night; their arms should be loaded, and their 
horses saddled but unbitted and picketed; they are taken to water by 
turns, in parties. In the artillery, the men of the inlying picket are 
always dressed, the horses have their collars on, and are taken to water 
only by piece or by section. 

§ 451. It rests with the commander of the main body, according to the 
news he has of the enemy, whether to direct additional precautions on 
the, part of the inlying picket; for instance, that the men should wear 
their accoutrements, &c. 

§ 452. The strength of the inlying picket is regulated by the com- 
mander of the detachment, or army, in conformity with the degree of 
danger, the proximity of the enemy, and his means of turning our posi- 
tion. Approximately, the inlying picket is 4 or 1 of the whole force. 

§ 453. In small detachments from which it is impossible to send out 
many men on outpost duty, and in general near the enemy, the whole 
detachment sdmetimes forms a kind of inlying picket; in this case only 
a small number are relieved at a time, according to the judgment of the 
commander, but the greater portion remain in readiness for action 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 4.73 

§ 454. Upon receiving from the outposts news of the approach of the 
enemy, the inlying picket at once moves to the front to receive the out- 
posts and aiFord the other troops time to prepare. 

§ 455. For greater security, the inlying picket is sometimes posted a 
little to the front, and then picket their horses somewhat in advance of 
the general camp. This is done whenever there is any thing immediately 
in front of the camp to cause delay. 

§ 456. The commander and all the officers of the inlying picket will 
strictly superintend the observation of all the precautions required. 

§ 457. To prevent confusion in the camp in case of an alarm or an 
attack, it is necessary to watch — 

1. That all parts of the troops are arranged in conformity with the 
movements they are to make, so that they can form in order of battle 
without confusion, and without crossing each other's paths. 

2. That all commanders, down to those of regiments and batteries, in- 
clusive, know the places their commands are to pccupy in the general 
order of battle, if it is determined to accept battle at or near the camp. 

3. That all impediments to the free communications and movements 
of the troops are removed in season as far as practicable. 

4. That the commander of the train is always informed whither to 
direct it, in case of leaving camp suddenly. 

5. That the parties of troops, from whom mixed detachments are sent 
out for forage and other necessaries, are formed immediately after their 
departure, to count and organize those remaining. 

§ 458. The commander of the main body should be well informed in 
regard to all the country in the vicinity of his position, and especially as 
to the roads and crossings of streams in the direction in which he expects 
to move. 

§ 459. In camps of the main body, the inlying picket posts camp and 
quarter guards immediately after reaching camp ; this is done as in time 
of peace. 

§ 460. It is the duty of the sentinels of the camp and quarter guards 
to see that no one leaves camp between evening twilight and reveille 
without a special permit from the commander, unless on duty. 

Men who are not known, and do not belong to the troops, or who 
have nut the necessary permission, are allowed to leave camp neither by 
day nor night, but are stopped by the sentinels and sent to the guards, 
by whom they are sent to the inlying picket. 

§ 461. In the night the sentinels of the camp and quarter guards chal- 
lenge all who approach from the exterior, and act as prescribed for vedettes. 

§ 462. In general, all the rules laid down for camp and garrison service 
in time of peace are carried out as far as possible in the camps of the 
main body. 



174 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 



CHAPTER IX. 

PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED FOR THE SECURITY OF 
CANTONMENTS. 

Article 1. 

Of advanced detachments. 

§ 463. Troops in cantonments, being scattered over a great space, and 
requiring much time to assemble, are not covered by a continuous chain 
of outposts. In this case, the arrangements for the early discovery of the 
approach of the enemy are made entirely by the cavalry, who must, by 
means of their outposts, patrols, and parties, watch the whole space in 
front of the cantonments towards the enemy. 

§ 464. These outposts consist entirely of independent posts, whose 
arrangement depends altogether upon circumstances. It can only be said 
that, as they are sent out to discover the enemy, they are posted in pre- 
ference on the main roads, at the junctions of roads on which the enemy 
must move, and in places favorable to defensive operations. If there is 
any place on the flank of the cantonments offering advantages to the 
enemy, it must be occupied. 

§ 465. The posts should be strong in proportion to the importance of 
the road on which they are placed, their distance from the cantonments, 
and the facility for defence ofi"ered by the ground. 

§ 466. The precautions to be observed by these posts have a twofold 
object : (a) their own safety ; (6) to afi"ord timely information of the 
approach of the enemy. In this matter they conform to what is pre- 
scribed in Part II., Chapter I., Article 6, of these regulations. 

§ 467. The more extensive the space over which the outposts are 
scattered, the more are they left to their own resources, and the more 
must their success depend upon the good sense of the commander of each 
party. His only means of obtaining news of the enemy are his own eyes, 
sentinels, vedettes, patrols, and information from travellers and the inhabit- 
ants ; but it depends upon his own sagacity to apply them with the 
greatest success. 

§ 468. To support the independent pickets, there may be sent out main 
guards, and on the most important points of all the roads leading towards 
the enemy main advanced detachments. 

§ 469. These last, being intended not only to support the cavalry out- 
posts and parties, but also to check the enemy long enough to enable the 
troops in the cantonments to assemble at the designated rendezvous, should 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 475 

possess a certain independent strength ; therefore they should consist of 
all three arms, according to the importance of the point. 

§ 470. These detachments are pushed one or two marches from the 
cantonments, and occupy strong positions, which they may sometimes 
strengthen by field works. 

§ 471. If the intervals between them are considerable, smaller posts 
are placed between them, to keep up the communication and secure the 
cantonments from being alarmed by light detachments of the enemy. 

§ 472. The commander of a main advanced detachment must make 
himself well acquainted with the country in the vicinity, examine all the 
approaches by which the enemy may arrive, and take all measures to 
discover his movements betimes, as well as to secure the best possible 
defence of the post. 

§ 473. All the outposts are subordinate to the commander of the main 
advanced detachment ; he arranges their movements, and receives from 
them all news of the enemy. 

§ 474. The main advanced detachments post camp and quarter guards. 
All the men should be in readiness for action ; therefore the horses are 
saddled at the picket-ropes, arms loaded, accoutrements close at hand, 
and they do not undress at night ; their inlying pickets keep their horses 
bridled and accoutrements on. The guns in position should be loaded, 
artillery horses with their collars on, the detachments close to their 
pieces. 

§ 475. All the posts mentioned in this article guard themselves by the 
various dispositions for outpost service ; that is to say, they detach inde- 
pendent posts or surround themselves by chains, according to their dis- 
tance from the enemy. They send out patrols and flying detachments as 
far as the position of the enemy, and also patrols to keep up their com- 
munication with each other and with the cantonments. 

§ 476. In order to embarrass and retard his approach, preparations are 
made betimes to take up the bridges, destroy the causeways, &c., in the 
direction of the enemy, so that the advanced parties may accomplish the 
purpose immediately upon their retreat across them. But the communica- 
tions with the cantonments should be perfectly open; therefore all obsta- 
cles should be removed betimes. 

§ 477. If the commander of a main advanced detachment receives 
news of the enemy, he at once reports it to the commander-in-chief, and, 
if necessary, to the commanders of the nearest posts and detachments. 
In such cases it is necessary to be unusually circumspect with regard to 
reports; and in case of the appearance of the enemy, to endeavor to 
ascertain his force and designs, in order to avoid alarming the canton- 
ments without cause. 

§ 478. That the commander-in-chief may be constantly informed of 



I 



476 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

what is going on at the outposts, the commanders of the main advanced 
detachments send reports to him at the hours he may specify, several 
times a day, even if nothing of importance has been observed. 

§ 479. Signal stations, telegraphs, &c., are established at convenient 
points to convey prompt information of the approach of the enemy. 

§ 480. If a main advanced detachment is attacked, its movements must 
depend upon the orders it has received from the commander-in-chief 

§ 481. Only their wagons of the 1st class, with a part of those of the 
2d, are with the main advanced detachments. 

If the enemy advances, the wagons at once move to the rear, so as not 
to impede the movements of the troops if they are forced to retreat. 

§ 482. On account of the fatiguing nature of the outpost duty, the 
troops should be relieved from time to time, according to the judgment 
of the commander-in-chief. 

Article 2. 
Precautions to he ohserved hy the main horly in cantonments. 

§ 483. In addition to the outposts and advanced detachments for guard- 
ing the cantonments, certain measures of precaution are taken by the 
main body itself, especially in reference to the rapid assembly of the 
troops in the event of an attack. These measures are regulated by the 
commander-in-chief, according to the proximity of the enemy and the 
desTce of the dana;er. 

§ 484. The troops nearest the enemy, being most exposed to attack, 
are placed in ci'owded quarters to secure a prompt assembly; the others 
may be placed farther apart and in more roomy quarters, for the greater 
facility of obtaining supplies. 

§ 485. In the distribution of the troops, their position in the canton- 
ments must correspond, as nearly as possible, with their position in the 
order of battle. The artillery is placed near the points where it is 
destined to act, the men and horses being in the same villages with 
the parks. 

§ 486. If it is necessary, inlying pickets are detailed in the villages 
nearest the enemy; the state of preparation in which they are kept is 
i-egulated by the commander-in-chief according to circumstances. If 
necessary, distant patrols are sent out by these inlying pickets. 

§ 487. In addition to the guards at regimental head-quarters, and in 
the diff'ei'ent parts of large villages, infantry guards are posted at the 
outlets of the villages on the side of the enemy. These guards post 
sentinels, and are ordered to prevent the passage of people without the 
countersign at night, or both by day and night, according to circumstances. 

§ 488. Signal stations and telegraphs must be arranged in the canton- 
ments. The signals to turn out and form must be explained to the troops. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 477 

§ 489. That the troops may meet the enemy in force if he attacks, 
points of rendezvous must be designated near the quarters for regiments, 
divisions, and other parties. 

§ 490. In addition to the general rendezvous, there is a special one for 
the troops in each village. This is chosen outside of the village, on the 
side nearest the general rendezvous; and measures are taken betimes 
that all the roads leading to the rendezvous may be open and free from 
obstacles. 

§ 491. When the troops march to the rendezvous, only the wagons of 
the 1st class accompany themj special rendezvous are given for the other 
wagons, so that the troops may nOt be delayed or embarrassed by them 
either when moving to the rendezvous or in case of retreat. 

§ 492. For the march of the troops to the rendezvous, roads are chosen 
for each party, so that they may neither cross nor delay each other on 
the march. 

The roads should be examined and repaired betimes. 



PART III. 



OF THE PRINCIPAL OPERATIONS OF SPECIAL DE- 
TACHMENTS. 

CHAPTER I. 

OF SUDDEN ATTACKS UPON THE ENEMY. 

§ 493. Sudden attacks upon the enemy are made with several objects: 

1. To alarm his posts; 

2. To capture one or more of them; and, 

3. To attack his quarters. 

§ 494. For all such enterprises, cavalry are chosen in preference. 
Mounted rifles, or dragoons, uniting the defensive force of infantry with 
the velocity of cavalry, may be of particular advantage in the last two 
cases, especially in passing to the defensive and covering a retreat, in case 
of a failure in the enterprise. 

§ 495. The principal conditions of success in all enterprises of this 
kind maybe stated to be: 1. Complete knowledge of the ground, and 
positive information as to the force and distribution of the enemy; 2. A 
concealed approach to the point on which the attack is to be made; 3. 
Rapidity of movement, seconded by the secrecy and unexpectedness of 
the attack; and, 4. To keep the movements of the difierent parties as 
closely united as possible until the last moment, so that no one of them 



478 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

may be delayed by unexpected obstacles, or discovered by the enemy on 
account of having separated too soon; finally, the whole force must be 
perfectly ready for action at a moment's notice. 

§ 496. In accomplishing a concealed approach to the point on which 
the attack is to be made, we will be assisted by selecting the time when 
the enemy least expects an attack, — that is, in the night, or thick weather; 
by choosing the route affording the best cover; by announcing an enter- 
prise of an entirely different nature; and, sometimes, by starting in the 
opposite direction, that after having made a considerable circuit we may 
finally come out in the real direction. 

§ 497. Besides the general conditions specified, there are also particular 
conditions, relating to each of the cases specified in § 493, which are dis- 
cussed in the following sections. 

§ 498. Attacks upon the enemy's outposts are undertaken either to 
harass him, by obliging him to be in constant readiness for action, or to 
divert his attention, in order to cover some movement favorable to us. 

In this and the other cases, we should endeavor to extend the alarm over 
the greatest possible space with the fewest possible men. 

For this, it is advantageous to divide the party into several sections, 
which, attacking at several points, either simultaneously or successively, 
break through the chain, gallop up to the main guards, and, having 
alarmed them, at once fall back; if successful, they seize some vedettes or 
even pickets. In such an attack every section exerts itself to appear as 
strong as possible; they therefore scatter, and generally keep up a warm 
firing and great noise. 

§ 499. Besides harassing the enemy, which is the direct object of these 
attacks, they may procure the advantage of making the enemy careless if 
they are frequently repeated, and thus facilitate the success of more im- 
portant operations. 

§ 500. In making an attack for the purpose of capturing a post of the 
enemy, it is well to divide the detachment detailed for the service into 
three parts: one moves to the rear of the post, on its road of retreat and 
reinforcement; another part makes the direct attack; the third is held in 
reserve to support the attack, or, in case of failure, cover the retreat of 
the other parts. If possible, it is well to conceal the reserve until the 
moment when the enemy is allured to pursue the repulsed party; then the 
reserve, acting as an ambuscade, endeavors to take the enemy in flank or 
in rear, and seize the abandoned post. 

§ 501. If the post attacked is in a village, the place of assembly should 
be ascertained, and a party of men sent there to seize the enemy as they 
arrive singly upon the alarm. 

§ 502. In general, in attacking a post with the design of taking posses- 
sion of it, the greatest silence should be observed, and the firing com- 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 479 

menced only when the attacking party has been ah-eady discovered; then 
rapidity and decision are necessary, so that the enemy may not have time 
to recover; rapidity and audacity in the attack usually command success. 

§ 503. If the enemy retreats, then on the return march the reserve 
usually marches in front with the prisoners; the attacking party follows; 
the party which moved on the enemy's rear acts as a rear guard. 

§ 504. If the ground permits, the attack may be combined with an 
ambuscade. For this purpose veteran troops are detailed, who are con- 
cealed with the object of falling suddenly upon the enemy when he has 
been decoyed to their position. In this case, success depends much upon 
the conduct of the troops who act openly, and who should endeavor to 
decoy the enemy into an imprudent pursuit, and draw him into the 
ambuscade. 

§ 505. The success of the ambuscade itself depends chiefly upon seiz- 
ing the proper moment for action. As a general rule, it should not begin 
to act too soon, lest the enemy retreat without loss. It is best to allow 
his leading parties to pass so ftir by that he may be attacked in flank, or, 
still better, in rear and his retreat cut ofi". 

§ 506. Apart from the object of seizing important points, attacks are 
sometimes made upon the enemy's posts with the special object of en- 
couraging the military spirit of our own troops, and increasing their bold- 
ness and self-confidence by partial successes. 

In this case prudence requires progression in the undertakings; be- 
ginning with those that require small numbers and at the same time pro- 
mise full success, such as capturing single vedettes; then, upon success, 
to undertake the capture of pickets, and finally to pass to more important 
enterprises. Inital successes in a campaign are of particular importance; 
they produce favorable impressions upon our own people, and depress the 
courage of the enemy. 

If the enemy is at all negligent in guarding his horses, small parties 
may accomplish important results by stampeding them at night. 

§ 507. The object of attacks upon the cantonments of the enemy may 
be to alarm him, to capture important points, or to profit by his disper- 
sion and attack in force so as to defeat him in detail. 

§ 508. In the first two cases the operations, although on a larger scale, 
will be nearly like those for attacking the outposts. 

In the last case, when the detachment making the attack succeeds in 
carrying any important point, it should be at once supported by the co- 
operation of other troops. Thus, not being delayed by the first success, 
it can at once move on, and, taking advantage of the dispersion of the 
enemy, endeavor to capture his troops before they are assembled and 
ready for action, trusting to the troops in rear of it for a safe retreat. 

§ 509. It is evident that the strength of detachments detailed for 

29 



480 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

sudden attacks must vary very much ; to capture a vedette 3 or 4 men are 
enough, — the fewer the better. To capture a picket, and generally to 
attack the enemy's outposts, parties of our own advanced troops may b« 
employed; to attack posts of importance, detachments of considerable 
strength may be sent out; while to attack the cantonments of the enemy, 
the whole of the main body is sometimes employed. 



CHAPTER II. 

OF RECONNOISSANCES. 



§ 510. A reconnoissance — that is, an ocular examination — should pre- 
cede every military enterprise. It is always necessary to know before- 
hand with what troops we have to deal, and the nature of the country in 
which the operation is to be effected ; this information can be fully obtained 
neither by interrogation nor from maps; there is no other way than by a 
reconnoissance. 

§ 511. Information obtained by a reconnoissance is preferable to that 
by interrogation, as being more full, and generally obtained with less 
delay. 

§ 512. If the enemy is so near that our own chain can see every thing, 
the reconnoissance is made under its protection. In such a case the 
reconnoitring ofl&cer either takes no escort, or a very small one, and, for 
greater secrecy, leaves even that at some distance. 

§ 513. If the enemy is at some distance, distant patrols are detailed for 
the reconnoissance; the duty is, according to its importance, intrusted 
either to the commander of the patrol or to a special officer (sometimes 
an officer of the staff) to whom the patrol is given as an escort. 

§ 514. If it is necessary to make a close reconnoissance of the position 
and arrangements of the enemy, detachments of considerable strength 
must be employed. Their composition must be such that they can drive 
in the enemy's outposts, break through his lines to the required distance, 
and remain long enough to gain satisfactory information. Such recon- 
noissances made openly and in force are called forced reconnoissaiices. 
Their object is sometimes not only to examine the ground and the 
arrangements of the enemy, but also to ascertain his strength; conse- 
quently, to alarm him to such a degree as to make him show the parties 
at first concealed. 

§ 515. To insure the success of a reconnoissance, whatever its object 
may be, it is necessary to attack suddenly and have a secure retreat. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 481 

§ 516. Small reconnoitring pai'ties usually consist of cavalry alone; 
but if a certain effort is required to seize any point, or if we must leave 
it occupied while we pass beyond it, then artillery and infantry must be 
added. Here, as in all cases when it is necessary to combine rapidity of 
movement with some defensive strength, mounted rifles may be advan- 
tageously employed. 

§ 517. The strength of a reconnoitring party can only be determineei 
by its object and the obstacles it may be expected to encounter, not only 
from the greater or less force of the enemy, but from the nature of the 
ground, the distance of the place to be examined from our main body, 
the degree of security of the retreat, &c. If the affair consists merely 
in driving in an independent picket and holding its position long enough 
to make an examination, a strong patrol will be sufficient; but if it is 
necessary to examine a large portion of the enemy's position, or to ascer- 
tain his strength, a considerable force may be required. But every thing 
stated in this chapter relates more particularly to reconnoissances made 
with small detachments. 

§ 518. Whatever may be the object of the reconnoissance and the 
composition of the detachment, the JSirst thing is to determine the point 
from which the examination can be best made, and the principal effort 
must be directed to the occupation of this point. This effort should not 
be limited to a direct attack, but should be aided by several simultaneous 
attacks upon other points, in order to distract the attention of the enemy, 
divide his force, and throw him into irresolution. Such operations will 
be particularly useful if the object is to ascertain the strength of the 
enemy, for the partial attacks force him to show his whole force. 

§ 519. Having occupied the point from which the reconnoissance is to 
be made, we should not be enticed into a pursuit of the beaten enemy, 
but proceed at once to strengthen ourselves in the position ; that is, we 
should take measures for meeting the enemy with advantage when he 
returns to the attack : with this view, the safety of the flanks must be 
particularly attended to, to prevent the enemy from endangering the 
retreat of the detachment by turning the position. 

§ 520. If the enemy makes a resolute attack before the reconnoissance 
is completed, the degree of defence must depend upon the importance of 
the object, that the sacrifice may be in proportion. A retreat commenced 
at the wrong time may encounter peculiar difficult}' : to commence the 
retreat before the completion of the reconnoissance, is to abandon the 
work when nearly finished ; remaining too long in position may expose us 
to useless loss. Therefore, if the object is to ascertain the strength of the 
enemy, the retreat should be commenced at once, because the enemy will 
soon recover from the first attack and gain the means of assuming the 
offensive. 



482 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

§ 521. When a party has made a recounoissance, its arrangem^J.^3 
during the retreat present nothing unusual; it should carefully guard 
its flanks by strong parties or patrols, and always expect to be violently 
attacked. 

§ 522. This is particularly to be anticipated when the object was to 
ascertain the strength of the enemy, and the retreat was commenced late. 
In such cases, prudence demands that we should place, beforehand, on 
the road of retreat, separate supports of sufiBcient strength to stop the 
pursuit and cover the retreat of the party. 

§ 523. When the supports of the reconnoitring party are shown, and 
the enemy is near, it is prudent to have a considerable part, if not the 
whole, of the main body ready for action. For it may easily happen that 
the enemy, having been alarmed by the reconnoissance, and afterwards 
excited by its repulse and pursuit, may change his operations into a gene- 
ral attack, especially if he observes the slightest negligence on our part ; 
in this case, all the advantage would be on his side. 

Remark. — There are two kinds of reconnoissanees : those to ascertain 
the general nature of the country, position and movements of the enemy, 
&c. ; and those immediately preceding an action. The first should be 
made with extreme minuteness, and as much time given to them as pos- 
sible ; they may be well done by a man with but little genius and of a 
careful, business turn of mind. The second require the highest order of 
military genius, a rapid and unerring coup-d'oeil, an accurate and instinct- 
ive knowledge of the tactics of all arms; they must be made with 
extreme rapidity, and acted upon at once. 

There have been innumerable instances in military history, and not a 
few in our own, where, on the one hand, invaluable time and opportunity 
have been lost by the system of slow and minute reconnoissanees in front 
of the enemy, — obtaining the horizontal curves of a field of battle ; on 
the other hand, plunging headlong into action without a proper knowledge 
of the ground. 

The important points are : the strength of the enemy, the key-points 
of his position, the nature of the ground between your own position and 
his ; that is, is it passable, and for what arms ? Let the subordinate 
commanders attend to minor obstacles. As soon as the proper information 
is obtained on these points, act. The mere moral effect of a rapid and 
unhesitating movement is very great. During the ordinary marches and 
intervals of rest, the cavalry and staff oflicers should collect every possible 
item of information ; nothing is too trifling to be worth knowing ; if they 
have done their duty properly, no general need hesitate more than a few 
minutes when he finds himself in presence of the enemy. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 483 



CHAPTER ni. 

OF CONVOYS. 
Article 1. 

The defence of convoys. 

§ 524. The rules for escorting trains, and the arrangements for securing 
them against attack, were explained in Part I., Chapter I., Article 5 ; in 
the present article will be explained the manner of defending the convoy 
when attacked. 

§ 525. The immediate defence of a very large train is, if not wholly 
impossible, at least very difficult; for it involves an injurious division of 
force. 

§ 526. The following rules are laid down as the most important : to 
keep the force as much concentrated as possible, in order to act offensively, 
leaving with the wagons only the number of men absolutely necessary; 
if this is impossible, an effort should be made to keep the enemy away 
from the train as long as possible. 

§ 527. In accordance with this, on the approach of the enemy, if the 
force of the escort is at all in proportion to that of the attacking party, 
it is best to move out to meet the enemy with the greater part of the 
escort, overthrow him, and clear the country in the direction of the march 
of the train. Even if the escort is much weaker than the enemy, it 
should move out to meet him, but must limit its subsequent operations to 
the defensive, endeavoring to keep the enemy away from the train long 
enough for it to gain a good defensive position. 

§ 528. In the latter case, the train is, if possible, parked in square, or 
corralled. The escort, having kept off the enemy long enough to permit 
this, retreats upon the train ; the defence, facilitated by the diminution 
of the space occupied, is now conducted in accordance with the general 
rules for the defence of the ground occupied, taking advantage of the 
obstacle presented by the wagons. 

§ 529. If the attack is altogether by surprise, and is made on several 
points at once, so that it is impossible to collect all the wagons in one 
place, then each section of the train should be formed into a separate 
column, square, or corral. 

§ 530. Any wagons loaded with powder or combustibles should be 
placed by themselves inside the square, or else formed into a separate 
park outside, placing them under cover of some defensible object. 

§ 531. In these cases, it is very necessary to watch the movements of 



484 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

the wagons, which should move to their places at such a gait as to render 
confusion impossible. 

Remarks. — At the commencement of the expedition, the commandei 
of the convoy should issue detailed instructions as to the manner of 
forming square or corral in case of attack. In square, the hind wheelf^ 
of the wagons should be towards the exterior, the wagons should be fast- 
ened together by the lock-chains, and in all cases intervals should be left 
for the passage of the escort at proper points; these intervals should 
be closed by chevaux-de-frise, chains, &c. 

The train is most readily corralled when moving in two columns by 
file and abreast. The leading wagons halt at a suitable distance apart, 
the others oblique outwards, each wagon moving to the front as soon as it 
clears the wagon next in front of it; each wagon then halts with its 
inner hind wheel close to the outer fore wheel of the wagon which pre- 
ceded it in the column, and these wheels are chained together; any 
desirable shape may be given to the corral by throwing the pole of each 
successive wagon more or less inward. 

§ 532. If there is a reasonable probability of saving the train by the 
operation, it is best to concentrate it in a favorable position, and await 
assistance; if the escort is altogether inferior in force, it may be best to 
save the train by a retreat. 

§ 533. When the wagons are formed in column, square, or corral, their 
defence devolves upon the infantry portion of the escort; the cavalry, 
remaining outside the park, can only co-operate by endeavoring to take 
the enemy in flank, &c. 

§ 534. The enemy may send out small detachments with the object of 
alarming the convoy and delaying its march by forcing it to halt and form. 
Such parties should be driven off by detachments from the escort, with- 
out assembling the train, which should be parked only when the enemy 
attacks decisively and in considerable force. Therefore patrols should be 
sent out as far as possible, to discover the approach of the enemy and 
ascertain his force betimes. 

§ 535. Having repulsed the enemy, the escort must not be induced to 
pursue him too far from the wagons ; it is only necessary to take measures 
to allow the train to pursue its march. 

§ 536. If the convoy is attacked when halted, the defence is conducted 
as already prescribed; but in this case the defence is easier, because the 
wagons are already formed and the escort in position. Even here it is 
best to try to keep the enemy at a distance, or, if the forces are at all 
equal, to defeat him, and then return to the train. 

§ 537. The selection of the positions for rests and camps will have a 
great influence upon the success of the defence of the convoy. In the 
selection, preference will be given to those places which are flivorablc to 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 485 

the action of the troops composing the escort, or the greater part of it. 
For parking the train, places must be chosen at a distance from objects 
which would conceal the approach of the enemy, and enable him to hold 
a position dangerously near; on the other hand, it should be surrounded 
by objects preventing easy access, but not interfering with observation. 

§ 538. At the park, the troops of the escort are posted as follows : the 
infantry and artillery bivouac inside the square j the first places its parties 
along the faces they are respectively detailed to defend, and posts guards 
and a chain of sentinels around the parkj the guns are placed at the 
angles, and generally at the weakest points, or where it is easiest to sweep 
the ground in front. 

The cavalry, bivouacked outside the park, places outposts and sends out 
patrols according to the rules for outpost service. 

The draught-animals should be collected in the centre, so as not to 
interfere with the defence of the sides. 

Article 2. 
The attack of convoys. 

§ 539. An attack upon a convoy may be intended either to capture it, 
to destroy it, or merely to alarm and delay it. 

Independently of other considerations, the composition and force of the 
attacking party must depend upon the object in view. 

§ 540. The general conditions for success in the attack of convoys are 
usually the same as for sudden attacks. The most favorable moment for 
attiicking a convoy is when it is passing a defile, crossing hills, streams, &c. 

§ 541. The main efibrt of the attack should be directed against the 
escort, especially if it is marching in one body, not only to occupy its 
attention, but also to separate it from the train if possible. At the same 
time, small parties should move upon different parts of the train, to pre- 
vent it from parking, carry it ofi", or destroy the wagons. A part of the 
troops must be held in reserve. 

§ 542. If the train succeeds in parking, the operations against it become 
difficult for cavalry alone ; in that case, the infantry and artillery must 
act. 

§ 543. If the train or a part of it is captured, and it is possible to 
carry it ofi^, the operations of the detachment change ; it then escorts the 
wagons, as directed in Part I., Chapter I., Article 5, and acts as is laid 
down in the preceding article. 

§ 544. When the attacking detachment is sent out merely to delay and 
annoy the convoy, it passes in advance of it, destroys the roads, ruins the 
crossings of streams, and alarms the convoy by partial attacks, particu- 
larly during the night and at well-known places. 



486 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 



CHAPTER IV. 

OF FORAGING, AND ATTACKS UPON FORAGERS. 

Article 1. 
Of foraging. 

§ 545. Under the head of foraging are included the operations of 
parties detailed to obtain not only forage, but supplies of all kinds. 

§ 546. Foraging is effected sometimes where there is no danger from the 
enemy, sometimes in places where an attack may be expected, and, in cases 
of extreme necessity, sometimes in places actually occupied by the enemy. 
The manner of conducting the operation is somewhat different in the 
three cases. 

Remark. — If the enemy is so near that an attack maybe expected, the 
artillery send out no foragers, so as not to break up the detachments with 
the guns and interfere with their readiness for action. In such cases, 
if it is not possible to supply the batteries from the temporary magazines, 
their foraging is imposed upon the cavalry. 

§ 547. Foraging out of all danger from the enemy is effected as fol- 
lows : a space for foraging is assigned to each party of the troops, and, if 
it is expected to remain some time in the same position, the villages are 
occupied by safeguards sent by the party in whose ground each falls. 
The foraging is commenced at the places nearest the enemy, falling back, 
as he approaches, to those immediately in our front, and finally to those 
in rear. 

§ 548. For foraging, parties of men, with the proper number of ofiicers, 
are detailed, and the necessary wagons sent with them ; if the forage is 
to be packed on the troop horses, this is done as shown in figs. 11, 12. If 
the foraging is to be effected in villages, severe measures must be taken 
to prevent disorder and plundering on the part of the foragers. 

§ 549. In this case, it is best not to take the party into the village, 
but to send for the chief persons and stipulate with them that the inhabit- 
ants shall bring the required forage and other stores out to the troops. 
If the inhabitants do not promptly comply with this moderate command, 
it is necessary to take the party in. 

§ 550. In this event, all possible means must be taken to prevent dis- 
order, as, for instance : 

1. A certain number of houses are assigned to each company, so that 
the commander of the detachment may hold each company responsible for 
the disorders committed within its limits. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 



487 



2. Guards are posted and patrols sent out, who arrest any foragers 
guilty of disorder. 

3. If the form of the village permits, a part of the detachment remains 
at the centre to pack the horses and load the wagons as fast as the other 
men bring the forage from the houses. 

§ 551. In places where an attack may be expected, the foraging is con- 
ducted as follows : Either fatigue parties are sent with wagons, or parties 
of cavalry with their own horses ; in both cases a special escort is added 
for the protection of the foragers. 

§ 552. In all cases, the strength of the escort depends upon the degree 
of danger, the space over which the foraging is to extend, and the dis- 
tance .from the enemy. 

§ 553. During the march of foragers to and from the foraging-ground, 
if they consist of a fatigue party with wagons, an escort is added, which 
acts in conformity with the rules for escorting convoys. 



Fig. 11. 



Fig. 12. 




If the foragers consist only of cavalry with their own horses, then on 
the outward march they move in one body, observing the precautions 
prescribed for movements near the enemy ; on the return march, if the 
horses of the foragers are packed and led, the detachment acting as escort 
should not pack more than 40 pounds on their horses, so that the load 
may not prevent them from acting against the enemy. 

Remarks. — Hay is packed as shown in figs. 11, 12. 

One hundred and twelve pounds may be packed on a horse, as shown 
in fig. 11, and the horse must be led; 56 pounds are packed as shown 
in fig. 12, in two trusses. 

§ 554. Sometimes the escort, or a part of it, may be sent out early to 



488 REGULATIONS FOR FIELD SERVICE 

the foraging-ground, to take measures for the security of the forager? 
before they arrive. 

§ 555. For the safety of the foragers when at their work, the escort is 
divided into two or three parts, according to circumstances : one part 
places a chain of outposts and sends out patrols, to guard the whole 
ground ; another furnishes the supports of the outposts, and if there are 
infantry or mounted rifles with it they occupy the points which cover the 
approaches; the third part is placed in reserve near the centre of the 
ground, that it may easily reach any point attacked. 

§ 556. If the enemy attacks while the foraging is going on, the escort 
should go to meet him or defend itself in position, endeavoring to stop 
him until the foragers have finished their work, and are drawn out on the 
road for their return march ; then the escort commences its retreat, acting 
as a rear guard, and endeavoring to keep the enemy as far from the 
foragers as possible. If it is impossible to hold the enemy in check long 
enough to finish the work, they should at least send forward and protect 
all the foragers who have packed their horses or loaded their wagons ; 
the rest join the escort. If there is a px-obability of driving oflF the enemy 
by uniting all the foragers to the escort, it is best to abandon the forage 
already packed, and to begin foraging anew after having repulsed the 
enemy. It is permitted to abandon the forage entirely only in extreme 
urgency, when there is absolutely no other way of saving the foragers. 

§ 557. If the enemy is repulsed, we must not be induced to pursue him 
any farther than enough to prevent a renewal of the attack, but must 
endeavor to complete the foraging. 

§ 558. The foraging must not be extended over any ground not guarded 
by the escort. If the escort is too weak to cover the whole space desig- 
nated for foraging, the ground is divided into parts, and the foraging 
efiected in the diff'erent portions successively. 

§ 559. If the foragers are attacked on their return march, the defence 
is conducted as prescribed in the preceding chapter. 

§ 560. If the foraging-ground is at a considerable distance from the 
camp, it will be a proj^er precaution to post a special detachment in sup- 
port half-way. 

§ 561. Foraging in places occupied by the enemy is undertaken only 
upon the entire exhaustion of the ground occupied by our own troops. 
Such foraging is covered by offensive operations, so that, having driven 
in the enemy's advanced troops or other parties, we may rapidly seize all 
the supplies to be found in the vicinity. This is c-dWed furced foraging. 

§ 562. The strength and composition of a detachment for forced 
foraging must be such that it can overwhelm the enemy's troops, and 
remain long enough in position to enable the accompanying detachment 
of foragers to complete their work and retreat out of danger. 



OF CAVALRY IN TIME OF WAR. 489 

§ 563. The main conditions of success in such an enterprise are sud- 
denness, rapidity, and determination in the attack, promptness in the 
work of the foragers, and tenacity in holding the positions taken from the 
enemy as long as necessary. Success will be greatly facilitated by partial 
attacks made upon different points of the enemy's position while the 
ibraging is going on. 

Article 2. 
Of attacks upon foragers. 

§ 564. Attacks upon foragers should be sudden and rapid, in order, by 
not giving the escort time to defend the points attacked, to produce con- 
fusion among the foragers and thus prevent them from working. 

§ 565. The approach of the attacking party should be concealed, rapid, 
and compact ; that is, it should not send out parties to any great distance 
in front or on the flanks, and, as a general rule, should not divide its force 
prematurely, but only the moment before the attack. 

§ 566. The force of a detachment sent to attack foragers depends 
chiefly upon the object of the attack; that is, whether it is designed to 
capture the foragers, or only to prevent them from foraging by alarming 
them, or to prevent them from carrying off forage already packed. 

§ 567. It is in all cases advantageous to begin with several simulta- 
neous false attacks by small parties, to perplex the enemy and oblige him 
to divide the escort; then to direct the main party of the detachment 
upon the principal point of the enemy's arrangements, overthrow his 
weakened escort, and penetrate to the road of retreat, so as either to cut 
off and destroy a part of the escort and foragers, or to force them to 
abandon their work and fly, by threatening to cut them ofi". 

§ 568. If from the disproportion offeree it is impossible to prevent the 
foraging entirely, the attacking party confines itself to delaying the work : 
its operations, therefore, should consist in partial attacks upon several 
points, in order to alarm and disperse the foragers by breaking through 
the outposts at several points. Upon meeting a considerable force of the 
enemy, these attacking parties should at once retreat, and renew the attack 
in a different place. In such operations a portion of the attacking detach- 
ment should be kept together and held in reserve, as a support and 
rallying-point for the small parties. 

§ 569. If they do not succeed in preventing the foraging, they may 
try to attack the foragers on the return march; observing in this case 
the rules laid down in the preceding chapter for attacks upon convoys. 



INDEX. 



A. 

PAOB 

Advanced guards, United States cavalry, in time of vrar 416, 425 

Arms, &c., of Austrian cavalry 322 

of French cavalry 343 

of Prussian cavalry 302 

infantry 76 

of Russian cavalry 202 

infantry 292 

militia 294 

of Sardinian infantry 83 

Army, Russian, composition 86 

Army corps, Russian 92 

Artel, Russian... 110 

Artillery, Russian 91 

AUSTRIAN CAVALRY : 

Arms, &c 322 

Clothing 327 

Cooking-utensils 328 

Daily duty in garrison 332 

Duties of officers 333 

Equitation, school of, at A'^ienna 335 

Forage 330 

Horses 329 

Horse equipments 323 

Marches, &c 334 

Organization 314 

Quarters 333 

Rations 328 

Stables 330 

Swimming 319 

Tactics, &c 315 

Austrian engineer troops 48 

infantry 63 

pioneers 49 

491 



492 INDEX. 

B. 

PAGE 

Battalion, school of, Russian infantry 233 

Berlin, veterinary school at 312 

Bivouacs of Prussian cavalry 3IU 

Bivouacs of Russian infantry 282 

Bridges, military, Prussian 4G 

Russian 37 



C. 

Camps, United States cavalry, in time of war 432, 472 

Camp equipage, Sardinian infantry 84 

Cantonments, United States cavalry, in time of war 474 

Caucasus, army of the 99 

Cavalry, Austrian 314 

English 377 

French 34<l 

Prussian 295 

Russian 90, 116, 200 

Sardinian 384 

United States 380 

Clothing of Austrian cavalry 327 

Colonies, military, of Russia 105 

Commander-in-chief, United States cavalry, in war 412 

Commander of the advanced guard, United States cavalry, in war 410 

of the rear guard. United States cavalry, in war 418 

Company, school of, Russian infantry 222 

Convoys, United States cavalry, in war 483 

Cooking-utensils of Austrian cavalry 328 

of Sardinian infantry 84 

Cossacks, &c 101, 207 

Crimean War 9 



D. 

Defence of trains, United States cavalry, in war 406 

Detachments, United States cavalry, in war 474 

advanced, flank and rear, United States cavalry, in war 419 

Dragoons, &c., Russian 207 

Duties of Austrian cavalry officers, &c 333 



E. 

Emperor of Russia, grand staif of. 86 

Encampments of Russian infantry 209 

Engineer troops, Austrian 48 



INDEX. 493 

PAGE 

Engineer troops, English 55 

French 55 

Prussian 45 

Russian 36, 92 

ENGLISH CAVALRY : 

Organization 377 

Horse equipments 378 

Tactics, &c 377 

Transportation by sea 379 

Equipments, horse, Austrian cavalry 323 

English cavalry 378 

French cavalry 343 

Prussian cavalry 301 

Russian cavalry 200 

Equitation, Austrian school of, at Vienna 335 

Prussian school of, at Schvvedt 311 

Evolutions of tJie line, Russian cavalry 169 

Russian infantry 234 

F. 

Farriers, school of, at Saumvir 372 

Field service of French cavalry 355 

of Prussian cavalry 308 

infantry 81 

of Russian cavalry 206 

of United States cavalry, in war, regulations for 395 

Field works, Russian 39 

Flank march, United States cavalry, in war 401 

Forage of Austrian cavalry 330 

of French cavalry 350 

of Prussian cavalry 305 

Foragers, United States cavalry, in war 489 

Foraging, United States cavalry, in war 486 

FRENCH CAVALRY : 

Arms, &c 343 

Field service 355 

Forage 350 

Horse equipments 343 

Horses .' 347 

Organization 340 

Quarters 350 

Rations 348 

Stables 351 

Stable-duty 354 

Tactics 342 

Transportation by sea 359 

Uniform 347 



494 INDEX. 

PAGE 

French engineer troops 55 

infantry 57 

G. 

Garrison, daily duty in, of Austrian cavalry 332 

Generals, posts of, &c., Russian cavalry 170 

General columns, Russian cavalry 196 

Russian infantry 234 

Guards, Russian infantry 278 



H. 

Halts of troops. United States cavalry, in war 408 

Horse equipments of Austrian cavalry 323 

of English cavalry .' 378 

of French cavalry 343 

of Prussian cavalry 301 

of Russian cavalry 200 

Horses, Austrian 329 

French 347 

Prussian 303 

Russian 204 

purchase of, for United States cavalry 392 

Hospitals, Russian 109 

I. 

Independent pickets. United States cavalry, in war 446 

Infantry, Austrian 63 

French 57 

Pi'ussian 69 

Russian 89, 211 

Sardinian 82 

Inspections of Russian army 108 

Irregular troops, Piussian 101 

L. 
Lancers, &c., Russian 207 



M. 

Main body, United States cavalry, in war 430, 472 

guard. United States cavalry, in war 442 

Marches, &c., of Austrian cavalry 334 

Marches of troops, United States cavalry, in war 395 



INDEX. 495 



P4GE 



Military schools, Russian 101 

Militia, Russian 293 

Mines, Russian 44 

Model regiments, Russian 100 

0. 

Order of battle, Russian cavalry regiment 163 

Orders of battle, Russian cavalry 187 

of battle, Russian infantry 234 

of reserve, Russian infantry 234 

Organization of Austrian cavalry 314 

of English cavalry 377 

of French cavalry 340 

of Prussian cavalry 295 

infantry 69 

of Russian cavalry 90 

infantry 89 

of Sardinian cavalry 384 

infantry 82 

Outposts, United States cavalry, in war 432, 452, 453, 459, 461, 462 

P. 

Patrols, United States cavalry, in war 421, 455 

Pay of Russian army Ill 

Pickets, United States cavalry, in war 438 

Pickets, independent. United States cavalry, in war 446 

Pioneers, Austrian 49 

Platoon, school of, Russian cavalry 136 

Pontons, leather, of Russian mounted engineer troops 38 

PRUSSIAN CAVALRY : 

Arms, &c 302 

Bivouacs 310 

Equitation, school of, at Schwedt 311 

Field service 308 

Forage 305 

Horse equipments 301 

HorseB 303 

Organization 295 

Quarters 305 

Rations 304 

Skirmishers 299 

Stables 300 

Stable-duty 307 

Tactics, &c 297 

Uniform 303 

Prussian engineer troops 45 

infantry, arms, &c 76 



496 INDEX. 

Prussian infantry, Field service 81 

Organization 69 

Quarters 80 

Kations 80 

Tactics, &c 74 

Uniform 77 



Q. 

Quarters of Austrian cavalry 333 

of French cavalry 350 

of Prussian cavalry 305 

infantry 80 

of Russian army 109 



R. 

Rations of Austrian cavalry soldiers 328 

of French cavalry soldiers 348 

of Prussian cavalry soldiers 304 

infantry 80 

of Russian army 110 

Rear guard. United States cavalry, in war 418, 430 

Reconnoissances, United States cavalry, in vrar 480 

Recruit, school of, Russian cavalry 116 

Recruiting, &c., of Russian army 102 

Regiment, school of, Russian cavalry 158 

Regulations for field service of United States cavalry in war 395 

Reserve, orders of, &c., Russian infantry 234 

Reserve troops of the grand army of Russia 98 

Reviews, Russian cavalry 168 

Riding-houses, Russian 205 

Rules for forming in order of battle, Russian cavalry 1D8 

RUSSIAN ARMY : 

Composition 86 

Inspections 108 

Irregular troops 101 

Pay Ill 

Quarters 109 

Rations 110 

Recruiting, &c 102 

Reserve troops 98 

Staif, general 88 

Uniform 105 

RUSSIAN CAVALRY: 

Arms, &c 202 

Equipment, &c 200 



INDEX. 497 

RUSSIAN CAY ALRY :— Continued. pao,e 

Evolutions of the line 169 

Field service 206 

Generals, posts of, &c 170 

General columns 196 

Horses 204 

Manfege riding 118 

Order of battle for a regiment 163 

Orders of battle 187 

Organization 90 

Platoon, school of the 130 

Recruit, school of the 116 

Regiment, school of the 158 

Reviews 168 

Rules for forming in order of battle 198 

Sabre exercise 124 

Skirmishers 152 

Squadron, school of the 140 

Stables 205 

Tactics, &c 116 

Uniform 107 

Russian emperor, grand staff of 86 

engineer troops , 36, 92 

RUSSIAN INFANTRY: 

Arms, &c 292 

Battalion, school of the 233 

Bivouacs 282 

Company, school of the 222 

Encampments 269 

Evolutions of the line 234 

General columns 234 

Guards 278 

Orders of battle 234 

• Orders of reserve 234 

Organization • 89 

Skirmishers 223 

Tactics, &c 211 

Uniform 107 

S. 

Sabre exercise, Russian 124 

Saps, Prussian 46 

Sardinian cavalry 384 

infantry, Arms, &c 83 

Camp equipage 84 

Cooking-utensils 84 

Organization 8_: 

Uniform ^3 



498 INDEX. 

PAOB 

Saumur, cavalry school at 364 

Schools, company and battalion, of Russian engineer troops 36 

Schwedt, school of equitation at 311 

Siege materials, Russian 41 

Siege operations, Russian 42 

Skirmishers of Prussian cavalry 299 

of Russian cavalry 152 

of Russian infantry 223 

Squadron, school of, Russian cavalry 140 

Stables, Austrian 330 

French 351 

Stable-duty of French cavalry 354 

Stables, Prussian 306 

Stable-duty of Prussian cavalry 307 

Stables, Russian 205 

Staff, general, Russian army 88 

Staff, grand, of the Russian emperor 86 

Standards and their escort, Russian cavalry 164 

Swimming, Austrian cavalry 319 



T. 

Tactics, &c., of Austrian cavalry 315 

of English cavalry 377 

of French cavalry 342 

of Prussian cavalry 297 

infantry 74 

of Russian cavalry 116 

infantry 211 

of United States cavalry 380 

Tents, Russian 109 

Topographical corps, Russian 88 

Trains, United States cavalry, in war 405 

Transportation of English cavalry by sea 379 

of French cavalry by sea 359 



U. 

Uniform of French cavalry 347 

of Prussian cavalry 303 

infantry ~ i 

of Russian army 105 

cavalry 107 

infantrv 107 

militial 294 

of Sardinian infantry 83 

of United States cavalry 392 



INDEX. 499 

UNITED STATES CAVALRY : pagk 

proposed organizatiou 387 

system of tactics 389 

school and depot 390 

purchase of horses 392 

V. 

Vedettes, United States cavalry, in war 434 

Veterinary school at Berlin 312 

schools of France 362 

school at Vienna 336 

surgeons, &c., of Austrian cavalry 337 

Vienna, schools of equitation, &c., at 335 

Z. 

Zouaves 61 



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vol. 12mo. $1.00. 

A Manual of Military Surgery; or, Hints on the Emergen- 
cies of Field, Camp, and Hospital Practice. By S. D. Gross, 
M.D., Professor of Surgery in the Jefferson Medical College of 
Philadeli^hia. 1 vol. 18mo. 50 cents. 



J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO. S MILITARY PUBLICATIONS. 5 

Cavalry Tactics. Published by order of the War Department. 
First Part. — School of the Trooper, of the Platoon and of 
the Squadron Dismounted. Second Part. — Of the Platoon and 
of the Squadron Mounted. Third Part. — Evolutions of a 
Regiment. 3 vols. 18mo. $3.75. 

War Department, Washington, Feb. 10, 1841. 
The system of Cavalry Tactics adapted to the organization of Dra- 
goon regiments, having been approved by the President of the United 
States, is now published for the government of the said service. 

Accordingly, instruction in the same will be given after the method 
pointed out therein ; and all additions to, or departures from, the ex- 
ercises and manoeuvres laid down in this system are positively for- 
bidden. J. R. POINSETT, Secretary of War. 

Instruction in Field Artillery. Prepared by a Board of 
Artillery Officers. 1 vol. demi-8vo. $2.50. 

Baltimore, Md., Jan. 15, 1859. 
Col. S. Coopek, Adjt. Gen. U.S.A. 

Sir : — The Light Artillery Board assembled by Special Orders No. 
134, of 1856, and Special Orders No. 116, of 1858, has the honor to 
submit a revised system of Light Artillery Tactics and Regulations 
recommended for that arm. 

WM. H. FRENCH, Bt. Major, Captain First Artillery. 
WILLIAM F. BARRY, Captain Second Artillery. 
HENRY J. HUNT, Bt. Major, Captain Second Artillery. 

War Department, March 6, 1860. 
The system of instruction for Field Artillery, prepared by a Board 
of Light Artillery Officers, pursuant to orders from this Department, 
having been approved by the President, is herewith published for the 
information and government of the army. 

All exercises, manoeuvres, and forms of parade not embraced in this 
system are prohibited in the Light Artillery, and those herein pre- 
scribed will be strictly observed. 

By order of the Secretary of War. 

The Handy-Book for the United States Soldier, ox coming 

INTO Service. Containing a Complete System of Instruction 
in the School of the Soldier ; embracing the Manual for the 
Rifle and Musket, with a preliminary explanation of the Form- 
ation of a Battalion on Parade, the Position of the Officers, 
&c. &c. Also, Instructions for Street-Firing. Being a First 
Book or Introduction to the authorized United States Infantry 
Tactics. Complete in I vol. 128 pages, illustrated. 25 cents. 

To the recruit just mustered into service, the system of tactics seems 
extensive and difficult. 

The design of this little Handy-Book is to divide the instruction, and, 
by presenting a complete system for the drill of the individual soldier, 
to prepare him for the use and study of the authorized United States 
Infantry Tactics, in the school of the company and the battalion. 



6 J. B. LIPPINCOTT & CO.'S MILITARY PUBLICATIONS. 

MILITARY BOOKS IN COURSE OF PREPARATION. 

New U.S. Cavalry Tactics. By Colonel Philip St. G. Cooke, 
U.S. Army. Approved by a Board of Cavalry Officers. {Im- 
mediately.) 

Jomini's Art of War, [Preds de Van de la guerre.] Summary 
of the Art of War ; or, A nev? Analytical Compend of the Prin- 
cipal Combinations of Strategy, Grand Tactics, and Military 
Policy. By Baron de Jomini, General in Chief, Aide-de-Camp 
General to the Emperor of Russia. A new and accurate trans- 
lation, from the last Paris edition, (just published,) by Lieut. 
Wm. p. Craighill, of the Military Academy, West Point, First 
Lieut, of Engineers, U.S. Army. 

k Comprelieiisive Encyclopaedia of Military Science, 

Art J and History) containing a Complete Explanation of all 
Military Terms, with their Pronunciation, and Descriptions of 
the Principal Battles in the World's History. Fully illustrated. 

Marmont's Spirit of Military Institutions, from the latest 

Paris edition. Translated, with notes, by Henry Coppee, Pro- 
fessor in the University of Pennsylvania, and late a Captain in 
the Army of the United States. 

This book contains, in a small compass, the principles of the art of 
war, as learned and practiced by this great marshal during the Napo- 
leonic wars. It treats of strategy, tactics and grand tactics, — of the 
organization and formation of armies — the principles of fortification — 
of military justice, wars offensive and defensive, marches and encamp- 
ments, reconnoissances, battles, — and various important topics, in- 
cluding the tactics of the three arms as applied in actual movements 
before the enemy, — with the peculiar characteristics and duties of 
general ofiBcers. 

Eegister of the Officers and Graduates of the U.S. Mi- 
litary Academy, at West Point, N. Y., from March 16, 

1802, to the present time. Compiled from the official records 
of the War Department, and other reli.able sources, by Geo. W. 
CuLLUM, Lieut. Col. and A. D.C. to Lieut. Gen. Winfield Scott. 

The Artillerist's Manual and U.S. Soldier's Compen- 
dium. By Joseph Egberts, Capt. 4th Artillery U.S. Army. 



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